In a groundbreaking advancement in the study of ancient human genomics, scientists from the Francis Crick Institute and Liverpool John Moores University have successfully sequenced the first complete genome from an ancient Egyptian individual dating back approximately 4,500 to 4,800 years. This achievement marks the oldest ancient Egyptian DNA ever sequenced, providing an unprecedented window into the genetic landscape of Egypt during the era known historically as the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods—times synonymous with the construction of the first pyramids and significant sociocultural development.
Sequencing ancient DNA from Egypt has notoriously challenged researchers due to the region’s warm climate, which accelerates DNA degradation. Forty years ago, Nobel Laureate Svante Pääbo pioneered efforts to extract genetic material from Egyptian mummies but was unable to generate a full genome sequence. Leveraging recently developed genomic technologies, the current research team overcame these obstacles by isolating DNA from the tooth of an individual whose remains were excavated in 1902 near Nuwayrat, a site located about 265 kilometers south of Cairo. The individual’s burial, which predates the widespread use of artificial mummification, likely contributed to the exceptional preservation of the genetic material.
Whole genome sequencing techniques were employed in this study, enabling scientists to decode the entire DNA sequence of this long-deceased individual rather than just targeting select genetic markers as was common in previous research. This comprehensive approach revealed that approximately 80% of his genetic ancestry is linked to populations from ancient North Africa, while about 20% shares affinity with groups from West Asia, particularly the Fertile Crescent region encompassing modern-day Iraq, Iran, and Jordan. This genetic admixture offers the first concrete genomic evidence corroborating archaeological suggestions of population movements and interactions across this historically significant corridor.
The discovery sheds new light on ancient population dynamics, illustrating that migration and interbreeding between North African and West Asian groups were occurring during the formation of Egypt’s early civilization. While artifacts such as pottery and writing styles suggested cultural exchanges, this genome provides direct biological confirmation of such exchanges and migratory patterns. Yet, the investigators emphasize that drawing extensive conclusions requires sequencing genomes from many more individuals to capture the full spectrum of ancestral diversity in ancient Egypt.
Beyond DNA analysis, the researchers also applied isotopic and chemical assessments on the dental remains to deduce the individual’s geographic origins during early life, establishing that he was likely raised within Egypt itself. This biogeochemical evidence supports the genetic data, indicating that while portions of his ancestry can be traced outside Egypt, his life experience was anchored firmly in the Nile Valley.
Examination of the skeletal remains revealed remarkable insights into the individual’s lifestyle. Musculoskeletal markers indicated habitual physical labor involving long hours spent seated with extended arms and legs, potentially indicative of occupational activities such as pottery-making, aligned with emerging archaeological evidence of pottery wheel usage arriving from West Asia at that time. The skeleton exhibited specific wear patterns on toe and arch bones, suggesting repetitive motions consistent with operating a pottery wheel. Paradoxically, the individual’s high-status burial does not typify what one would expect for a craftsman, raising intriguing questions about social stratification and the possibility of elevated status through exceptional skill or success in his trade.
The remains themselves have a story of survival beyond their ancient origins. Discovered more than a century ago under British colonial management, the skeleton was legally exported to the United Kingdom under the partage agreement, whereby foreign excavators could export select finds for study. Despite the turmoil of World War II and the devastating destruction of many museum collections during the Blitz, this particular skeleton survived in Liverpool’s World Museum, facilitating its eventual genomic study.
Experts involved in the study highlighted the multidisciplinary nature and technical sophistication required to make this discovery, combining archeology, anthropology, chemical analysis, and state-of-the-art genetics. The extraction method meticulously avoided contamination, a common issue in ancient DNA sequencing, ensuring that the genome truly reflected the ancient individual rather than modern human DNA.
The researchers’ findings underscore the transformative potential of genomic data in rewriting narratives of human history. By integrating biological information with archaeological and cultural frameworks, they have illuminated aspects of human migration, interaction, and social organization in a region foundational to civilization. The ability to sequence whole genomes from such ancient specimens opens avenues for future research into the origins and movements of populations in northeastern Africa and beyond.
Looking ahead, the research team aims to expand genomic sampling across Egypt, ideally incorporating collaborations with Egyptian scientists and institutions to enhance understanding of the demographic complexities during the pivotal times that shaped early Egyptian society. The hope is that such efforts will deepen insights into when and how gene flows from neighboring regions influenced the Egyptian gene pool and cultural evolution.
This discovery not only highlights the rapid technological advances in ancient DNA research but also demonstrates how modern science can breathe new life into ancient remains, revealing detailed stories concealed for millennia beneath the desert sands. As methods continue to improve, the promise of reconstructing a more comprehensive genetic history of ancient populations grows ever brighter.
Overall, this first whole genome from an ancient Egyptian individual serves as a monumental step in uncovering the hidden genomic history of one of the world’s oldest civilizations, reshaping our understanding of human ancestry and migration during a formative period in human history.
Subject of Research: Ancient Egyptian whole genome sequencing and population genetics
Article Title: Whole-genome ancestry of an Old Kingdom Egyptian
News Publication Date: July 2, 2025
Web References:
DOI: 10.1038/s41586-025-09195-5
References:
Morez Jacobs, A. et al. (2025). Whole-genome ancestry of an Old Kingdom Egyptian. Nature. 10.1038/s41586-025-09195-5
Image Credits: Available on request from Francis Crick Institute
Keywords: DNA sequencing, Genetics, Ancient DNA, Archaeology, Ancient Egypt, Population genetics, Whole genome sequencing, Human migration
