In the rapidly evolving discourse on urban sanitation and gender dynamics, a new study brings to light the intricate relationship between women’s perceptions of privacy, safety, and their consequent behavioral adaptations concerning sanitation practices in two vastly different urban landscapes—Kampala, Uganda, and Tiruchirappalli, India. This ground-breaking research, led by Sinclair et al., offers an unprecedented quantitative assessment of how environmental and psychosocial factors interplay to influence women’s withholding and suppression related to sanitation needs. The findings not only advance the field of public health but also chart new territories for policy interventions aimed at improving women’s well-being and autonomy in urban settings globally.
At the heart of the investigation lies the notion of "suppression"—the act of stifling or withholding natural bodily functions due to environmental constraints or psychological distress linked to sanitation use. Employing a series of linear regression models, the researchers sought to unravel how incremental changes in women’s experiences of privacy and safety correlate with their suppression behaviors. In Tiruchirappalli, the privacy scale emerged as a potent predictor: with every unit increase in perceived lack of privacy, women demonstrated a notable rise in their suppression scores. This relationship, quantified as an increase of 0.20 points per unit, underscores the profound impact that inadequate privacy can exert on women’s capacity to engage in routine sanitation practices without discomfort or fear.
Strikingly, this privacy-suppression effect was absent in Kampala’s cohort. This divergence reveals not only the heterogeneity of sanitation-related challenges faced by women in different urban contexts but also suggests culturally and infrastructurally specific mechanisms driving these behaviors. It invites us to reconsider one-size-fits-all approaches and highlights the necessity of contextualized research and interventions. The disparity prompts further inquiry into the unique socio-environmental landscapes that modulate women’s experiences and responses to sanitation infrastructure.
Complementing privacy, the study also foregrounds women’s perceptions of safety and security—fundamental elements that shape sanitary access and usage. In Tiruchirappalli, increasing perceptions of unsafety closely echoed the trends observed with privacy: a one-unit rise in feelings of insecurity predicted a 0.09 increase in suppression scores. While this effect size is more moderate, it nonetheless signifies an alarming correlation between feeling unsafe and the likelihood of suppressing essential bodily functions, thereby intensifying health and psychosocial risks.
Conversely, Kampala’s data revealed a more nuanced and multifaceted picture regarding safety and security perceptions. Safety and security factors dissected into several subcategories—each representing different dimensions of risk awareness and concern—showed statistical significance in diverse ways. Notably, perceptions of risk attending sanitation-related meetings (factor 2) correlated with a 0.13 increase in suppression, indicative of heightened anxiety impacting women’s behavioral choices. This highlights the pervasive influence of social settings where sanitation is discussed or managed, suggesting that women’s fears extend beyond physical environments into the realms of communal participation and decision-making.
Conversely, an inverse relationship was observed concerning perceptions of general risk when simply going for sanitation (factor 1), where a one-unit increment paradoxically correlated with a 0.19 decrease in suppression. This counterintuitive finding might reflect adaptive behaviors or community-level resilience in Kampala, whereby anticipating risk triggers more proactive strategies to mitigate suppression, possibly through seeking safer alternatives or collective action. Such dynamics reveal the complex psychological and social calculus women perform daily, balancing fear with necessity.
In Tiruchirappalli, the safety and security factor that significantly mattered was factor 4—perceptions of personal risk during sanitation activities. Each unit increase in this factor’s score corresponded to a 0.13 rise in suppression, reinforcing the individual-centered nature of risk perception in that context. The weight of personal vulnerability underscores how urban planning and facility design must prioritize not just general safety but also the nuanced vulnerabilities unique to women in specific locales.
Importantly, the investigation extended to “health factors,” evaluating whether sanitation-related anxiety, embarrassment, or shame bore on suppression. While no statistically significant effects materialized among women in Tiruchirappalli, Kampala’s data offered a revealing exception. Health factor 4, encompassing feelings of anxiety and shame tied to sanitation, was associated with a 0.14 decrease in suppression with each unit increase. This suggests that, paradoxically, heightened health-related emotional distress might motivate women to avoid suppression, perhaps by fostering greater urgency to use facilities despite discomfort or stigma. Alternatively, it may reflect complex coping mechanisms that differ between urban settings, emphasizing the heterogeneity of psychological responses to sanitation challenges.
The implications of these discoveries are profound, touching on fundamental human rights, dignity, and public health. Women’s ability to access and use sanitation facilities without fear or shame is pivotal to their overall well-being, reproductive health, and community participation. The documented links between privacy deprivation, safety fears, and suppression behaviors highlight the necessity for multifaceted interventions. These must transcend mere infrastructure provision to encompass psychosocial support, cultural sensitivity, and community engagement that collectively mitigate risks and empower women.
Moreover, the study’s methodological rigor, relying on validated scales and factor analyses, sets a new benchmark for future research. By disaggregating safety and health perceptions into distinct factors, Sinclair and colleagues illuminate the variegated nature of women’s sanitation experiences, enabling more targeted and effective policy responses. The regional contrasts seen between Kampala and Tiruchirappalli further stress that solutions must be tailored, avoiding blunt instruments that risk exacerbating disparities or failing to address local realities.
This research also invites broader reflections on urban sanitation as a social determinant of health, intersecting with gender, urban poverty, and cultural norms. The bidirectional relationships between environment, emotion, and behavior uncovered here resonate with global movements to reimagine urban public services as inclusive, equitable, and sensitive spaces rather than sterile or punitive infrastructures. In so doing, it advances an intersectional framework that acknowledges women’s unique vulnerabilities while valorizing their agency.
Policy-makers and urban planners would do well to heed these findings. Integrating privacy-preserving designs—such as gender-segregated toilets, lockable stalls, and discreet access points—with comprehensive safety measures—including lighting, security personnel, and community surveillance—can dramatically reduce suppression behaviors with downstream benefits on women’s health and dignity. Beyond physical improvements, programming to address stigma, anxiety, and social exclusion is vital, potentially through community dialogues, education, and empowerment initiatives that rebuild trust and normalize sanitation needs.
Finally, future research pathways beckon. Longitudinal studies could unravel causal trajectories between evolving safety perceptions and behavioral adaptations, while qualitative inquiries might deepen understanding of lived experiences behind the numbers. Expanding this work to other urban contexts and rural settings will also test the generalizability of the findings and uncover additional variables influencing sanitation-related suppression. Ultimately, such endeavors will enrich global sanitation agendas, aligning them more closely with the lived realities of women who daily navigate a complex web of risks and rights.
The trailblazing efforts by Sinclair et al. thus represent a pivotal advancement in illuminating the hidden burdens of women’s sanitation struggles. By quantifying the mental and environmental calculus women endure in managing privacy, safety, and shame, this study powerfully advocates for holistic, context-aware approaches to urban sanitation. These approaches must envision not only toilets and policies but restore the full humanity and dignity inherent in the simple act of answering the call of nature.
Subject of Research: Women’s sanitation-related withholding and suppression behaviors in urban Uganda and India and their association with perceptions of privacy, safety, and health factors.
Article Title: Sanitation-related withholding and suppression among women in urban Uganda and India.
Article References:
Sinclair, E., Hüls, A., Patrick, M. et al. Sanitation-related withholding and suppression among women in urban Uganda and India. Nat Water (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-025-00452-5
Image Credits: AI Generated
