Relative deprivation linked to lower activity among university students

In a cross-sectional survey of 419 undergraduate students at one university in Jiangsu Province, China, greater perceived relative deprivation was associated with lower physical activity participation, partly through its association with reduced psychological capital. Structural equation modeling showed that relative deprivation was negatively linked both to participation and to the combination of self-efficacy, hope, resilience and optimism that constitutes psychological capital. The researchers reported that the indirect association through psychological capital remained significant after adjustment for age and gender, although the design cannot establish causation or the order in which these factors influence one another.

The survey, conducted in February 2026, found a mean physical activity participation score of 2.94 on a five-point scale, with a standard deviation of 0.91. Relative deprivation averaged 3.51 points on a six-point scale, while psychological capital averaged 3.65 points with a standard deviation of 1.04. Of the 419 valid questionnaires, 450 had originally been distributed, giving an effective response rate of 93.11%. The sample included 205 male and 214 female students, and its mean age was 19.99 years, with a standard deviation of 1.12 years. No significant differences between male and female participants were detected in physical activity participation, relative deprivation or psychological capital.

Researchers used a seven-item Physical Activity Participation Scale based on the frequency, intensity, time and type components of the FITT principle. Relative deprivation was assessed with the five-item Personal Relative Deprivation Scale, which captures feelings of disadvantage, unfairness and dissatisfaction when comparing oneself with similar others. Psychological capital was measured with the 12-item Psychological Capital Questionnaire, divided into self-efficacy, hope, resilience and optimism. All three scales showed acceptable internal consistency in this sample: Cronbach’s alpha was 0.886 for physical activity participation, 0.857 for relative deprivation, and between 0.775 and 0.869 for the four psychological-capital dimensions.

The latent-variable model encompassing physical activity participation, relative deprivation and the four dimensions of psychological capital fitted the survey data well. Its fit indices were χ²/df = 1.154, comparative fit index of 0.993, Tucker–Lewis index of 0.992, root mean square error of approximation of 0.019 and standardized root mean square residual of 0.030. The second-order psychological-capital construct was supported by standardized loadings of 0.789 for self-efficacy, 0.777 for hope and 0.756 for resilience, with optimism fixed as the reference indicator. Heterotrait-monotrait ratios ranged from 0.407 to 0.848, below the stated 0.90 threshold for acceptable discriminant validity.

All three hypothesized structural paths were statistically significant. Relative deprivation had a negative standardized association with physical activity participation, β = −0.391, and with psychological capital, β = −0.518, both with p < 0.001. Psychological capital, in turn, was positively associated with physical activity participation, β = 0.328, p < 0.001. The structural model fit the data well, with χ²/df = 1.343, comparative fit index of 0.983, Tucker–Lewis index of 0.981, root mean square error of approximation of 0.029 and standardized root mean square residual of 0.040. Pearson correlations followed the same pattern: relative deprivation correlated negatively with physical activity participation at r = −0.353 and with psychological capital at r = −0.418, while psychological capital correlated positively with participation at r = 0.494.

A bootstrap mediation analysis based on composite scale scores, using 5,000 resamples, estimated a total effect of relative deprivation on physical activity participation of −0.361, with a 95% bootstrap confidence interval of −0.453 to −0.269. The direct effect remained significant after psychological capital was included, at −0.182, with a 95% confidence interval of −0.274 to −0.089. The indirect effect through psychological capital was −0.179, with a bootstrap standard error of 0.027 and a 95% confidence interval of −0.236 to −0.128. Because the confidence interval excluded zero and the direct path remained significant, the results were characterized as partial rather than complete statistical mediation.

The pattern persisted in a robustness model that included age and gender as covariates. Relative deprivation remained negatively associated with physical activity participation, β = −0.354, and psychological capital, β = −0.415, while psychological capital remained positively associated with participation, β = 0.421, all with p < 0.001. The adjusted indirect effect was −0.178, with a 95% confidence interval of −0.235 to −0.127, and the adjusted direct effect was −0.183, with a 95% confidence interval of −0.275 to −0.090. The model containing gender and age explained 27.3% of the variance in physical activity participation, with an adjusted R² of 0.266.

Relative deprivation in this study meant perceiving oneself as disadvantaged in resources, opportunities, status or outcomes compared with others, particularly when such differences were regarded as unfair. The authors proposed that such negative social comparison could be associated with frustration, reduced perceived control and weaker behavioral motivation, while also drawing on conservation-of-resources theory: sustained perceptions of disadvantage may coincide with fewer internal resources available for maintaining active behavior. They also emphasized that external barriers may matter. Financial limitations, equipment costs, transport difficulties and limited sports facilities can constrain participation, and perceived disadvantage may amplify the psychological burden of those constraints. The survey cannot determine how much of the observed association reflects objective conditions, subjective comparisons or a combination of the two.

Psychological capital offered a possible statistical explanation for part of the pattern. Self-efficacy concerns confidence in completing exercise tasks; hope supports goals and perceived routes for reaching them; resilience can help sustain activity through fatigue, academic pressure or setbacks; and optimism shapes expectations about positive outcomes. Each of the four dimensions was positively correlated with physical activity participation and negatively correlated with relative deprivation. Yet the cross-sectional design prevents the researchers from determining whether depleted psychological resources heighten sensitivity to social comparison, whether less activity reduces psychological capital, whether both processes operate together or whether other factors influence all three variables.

Several additional limitations restrict how far the findings can be generalized. The participants came from a single university, so the results may differ among institutions, regions and student populations. Physical activity and both psychological variables were assessed by self-report at one time point, creating potential recall, social-desirability and common-method biases, although a six-factor model fitted substantially better than a single-factor alternative and the first unrotated factor explained 37.119% of variance. The researchers did not conduct a formal power or sensitivity analysis, and factors such as grade level, academic major, family socioeconomic status, body mass index, physical education requirements and prior exercise experience were not controlled. The evidence therefore supports a cross-sectional association in this sample, not proof that perceived disadvantage causes inactivity or that strengthening psychological capital would cause activity to increase.

Subject of Research: Associations among relative deprivation, psychological capital and physical activity participation in university students

Article Title: Relative deprivation and physical activity participation among university students: the mediating role of psychological capital

Article References: Dong, R., Hamzah, M. S. G. B., Awang, M. M. B., Qiu, J., & Yang, G. (2026). Relative deprivation and physical activity participation among university students: the mediating role of psychological capital. Frontiers in Psychology, 17, Article 1923570. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1923570

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1923570

Keywords: relative deprivation, physical activity, psychological capital, university students, social comparison, mediation analysis, self-efficacy, cross-sectional survey, Relative, deprivation, physical, activity