In a groundbreaking study published in BMC Psychology, researchers Deng, Du, Zeng, and colleagues have unveiled compelling insights into the psychological effects of two widely practiced meditation techniques: loving-kindness meditation (LKM) and compassion meditation (CM). Their research critically challenges the assumption that kindness is always the most desirable emotional outcome, suggesting instead that happiness may be a more preferred and actively sought-after state of mind during meditative practices. This study offers a deep dive into the nuanced psychophysiological and emotional responses elicited by these contemplative exercises, providing fresh perspectives on how different meditative traditions influence human well-being.
Meditation has long been heralded as a tool for cultivating positive mental states, yet the specific qualities nurtured by various techniques can differ significantly. Loving-kindness meditation traditionally focuses on fostering feelings of warmth, goodwill, and unconditional kindness toward oneself and others. In contrast, compassion meditation emphasizes understanding and empathetic concern for the suffering of others, often accompanied by an aspiration to alleviate that suffering. Despite their conceptual proximity, Deng and colleagues’ study reveals that individuals engaging with these meditations show varying predispositions toward the emotional experiences they evoke, with happiness rather than kindness emerging as the more compelling attractor.
The research employed a comprehensive experimental design incorporating self-report measures, psychophysiological recordings, and behavioral probes to dissect the internal experiences associated with LKM and CM. Participants were systematically guided through sessions of each meditation, after which their affective states were assessed to quantify the intensity and valence of kindness and happiness reported. The results challenge the intuitive expectation that loving-kindness would engender stronger feelings of kindness, demonstrating instead that happiness often surpassed kindness in preference and salience during the practice.
Diving deeper into the technical aspects of measurement, the study utilized heart rate variability (HRV), electroencephalography (EEG), and skin conductance levels to elucidate the autonomic nervous system and cortical dynamics underpinning these emotional shifts. In particular, specific EEG frequency bands linked to positive affect and attentional engagement showed differential modulation in LKM versus CM. The data suggest that happiness-related neural signatures were more pronounced during loving-kindness meditation, indicating a possible neurophysiological basis for the participants’ greater affinity toward happiness over kindness.
Moreover, the interplay between subjective experience and objective physiological markers paints a complex picture of meditation’s impact on mental health. The research team highlighted that while kindness remains a critical prosocial emotion, it may not be the primary factor motivating sustained meditation practice. Instead, the pursuit of happiness—and the cognitive and affective states that support it—appears to provide a more immediate and accessible reinforcement loop for practitioners, thereby influencing their preference and engagement levels.
One of the novel contributions of this study is its nuanced differentiation between loving-kindness and compassion meditations in terms of their emotional and motivational effects. Although both aim to enhance prosocial tendencies, the experiential trajectory and underlying cognitive appraisals differ markedly. Compassion meditation heightened awareness of suffering and cultivated empathetic concern, which participants sometimes reported as challenging or less immediately pleasurable compared to the joyful feelings associated with loving-kindness meditation. This finding situates compassion meditation as potentially more cognitively demanding and emotionally complex, with implications for how meditation instructors tailor practices to individual needs.
The implications of these findings extend beyond theoretical psychology into practical domains such as clinical interventions for mood disorders and stress resilience. By understanding that happiness plays a more significant role than kindness in determining meditation preference and efficacy, therapists and mindfulness practitioners can better adapt their protocols to enhance adherence and optimize therapeutic outcomes. For example, clients struggling with anhedonia or depression might benefit more from loving-kindness practices that amplify happiness-related affect rather than compassion meditation, which may initially evoke more difficult emotions.
Further, Deng and colleagues explored the sociocultural context influencing participants’ preferences, noting that cultural values and prior meditative experience modulate how kindness and happiness are perceived and prioritized. This intersectional approach underscores the necessity of culturally sensitive frameworks when applying meditation-based interventions, acknowledging that emotional constructs such as kindness and happiness are embedded within broader societal norms and personal histories.
The study also engages with ongoing debates in contemplative science concerning the definition and measurement of kindness and happiness. Recognizing the lexical and conceptual overlaps, the researchers advocate for more sophisticated, multidimensional affective inventories that better capture the dynamic and layered qualities of these emotions as experienced during meditation. Such advances could refine methodology across future investigations, fostering reproducibility and cross-study comparability.
From a neuroscientific standpoint, the differential activation patterns observed parallel existing literature on positive affect and empathy neural networks. Specifically, the prefrontal cortex and insular regions demonstrated varied engagement during LKM and CM sessions, aligning with the subjective reports of greater happiness in the loving-kindness condition and enhanced empathetic sensitivity during compassion meditation. This neurobiological correlational data enriches the theoretical framework by providing empirical grounding for psychological constructs.
Moreover, the authors speculate on the evolutionary significance of preferring happiness over kindness in meditation practices. They propose that the pursuit of happiness serves adaptive functions by reinforcing behaviors that promote individual well-being, which in turn supports social cohesion and prosociality indirectly. Kindness, while vital, may be experienced as a secondary or derivative positive state arising from the more fundamental drive toward happiness.
The study’s methodological rigor is noteworthy, incorporating randomized controlled trial elements, longitudinal follow-ups, and comprehensive data analytics. This robustness bolsters the reliability of the conclusions drawn and paves the way for replication and expansion in broader populations. The research team encourages future studies to explore additional meditation types and diverse demographic cohorts to validate and extend their findings.
Additionally, the authors raise important questions about meditation instruction and pedagogy. Given the differentiated emotional effects, meditation teachers might consider emphasizing happiness-enhancing techniques initially to foster engagement, gradually introducing compassion practices with their attendant challenges. This sequenced approach could optimize the learning curve and emotional adaptation for novice meditators.
Public response to the publication has erupted across social media platforms and mental health forums, highlighting the growing interest in evidence-based contemplative sciences. The revelation that happiness might be more compelling than kindness in meditation opens new avenues for personalized mental health strategies and challenges existing dogmas rooted in classical Buddhist contemplative teachings. As mindfulness and meditation continue their ascent in popular culture, such nuanced scientific insights are essential for guiding informed, effective practice.
In summary, Deng, Du, Zeng, and their colleagues provide a significant contribution to our understanding of the emotional landscape navigated during meditation. By revealing the preferential status of happiness over kindness, their work invites researchers, clinicians, and practitioners alike to reconsider long-held assumptions about contemplative emotional priorities. This paradigm shift enhances the scientific discourse surrounding meditation and human affect, echoing profoundly through psychological theory, neurobiology, and practical application.
This pioneering investigation marks a crucial step toward more sophisticated, personalized contemplative interventions designed to harness the true spectrum of human affective experience. As the meditation movement continues to influence global approaches to psychological well-being, such research will be indispensable for fostering practices that resonate deeply and sustainably with diverse practitioners worldwide.
Subject of Research: Emotional and motivational effects of loving-kindness meditation versus compassion meditation
Article Title: Kindness is lesser preferable than happiness: investigating interest in different effects of the loving-kindness and compassion meditations.
Article References:
Deng, Y., Du, T., Zeng, X. et al. Kindness is lesser preferable than happiness: investigating interest in different effects of the loving-kindness and compassion meditations. BMC Psychol 13, 443 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02771-4
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