Warm Teachers, Sharp Minds: How Communication Skills Shape Elementary Math Cognition in Indonesia and Malaysia

When a teacher leans forward, makes eye contact, and smiles while explaining fractions, something measurable happens. A new study of 235 elementary school teachers in Indonesia and Malaysia suggests that these small interpersonal behaviors, known collectively as teacher immediacy, are statistically significant players in the relationship between how well teachers communicate and how sharply they think about mathematics. But the findings, published in Discover Education, contain a twist that challenges the intuitive story: warmth helps, yet it cannot outshine the raw power of clear communication.

The research team, led by Fery Muhamad Firdaus of Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta alongside colleagues from the University of Mataram and Universiti Putera Malaysia, set out to untangle three constructs that education researchers have long suspected are intertwined: communication skills, teacher immediacy, and mathematical cognitive abilities. The concept of immediacy traces back to psychologist Albert Mehrabian, who in 1969 defined it as behavior that increases the perceived psychological closeness between communicator and recipient. In classrooms, immediacy manifests as eye contact, smiling, open body language, and reduced physical distance, all of which prior studies have linked to greater student engagement and motivation.

What makes this study unusual is its focus on teachers rather than students. The researchers asked whether the immediacy behaviors teachers display also shape the teachers’ own cognitive processing of mathematical content. Their theoretical reasoning drew on Bandura’s social learning theory, which holds that teachers with strong communication skills become effective models, and on Piaget’s cognitive theory, which emphasizes that social interaction supports cognitive development. Through explaining concepts to others, the argument goes, teachers refine and consolidate their own understanding, engaging in active cognitive work rather than passive delivery.

To test these ideas rigorously, the team recruited 235 teachers, 187 from Indonesia and 48 from Malaysia, using convenience sampling through online channels and institutional contacts. Participants ranged in teaching experience from 2 to 20 years and were all actively teaching mathematics. The sample included 101 men and 134 women, with 190 holding bachelor’s degrees and 45 holding master’s degrees. Data were collected via online questionnaires, with instruments adapted from previously validated measures: an 18-item communication skills scale across five dimensions with an average reliability of 0.87, a 23-item teacher immediacy scale adapted from Wilson and Locker with a reliability of 0.92, and a five-item mathematical cognitive instrument developed by the researchers with a reliability of 0.82.

Before running any hypothesis tests, the researchers subjected all three instruments to confirmatory factor analysis, a statistical technique that verifies whether survey items genuinely cluster into the constructs they are meant to measure. The results were strong. Teacher communication skills showed a Comparative Fit Index of 0.924 and a Tucker-Lewis Index of 0.912, both exceeding the conventional threshold of 0.90, with a Root Mean Square Error of Approximation of 0.060 and a Standardized Root Mean Square Residual of 0.049. Teacher immediacy fit slightly better at CFI 0.935 and TLI 0.924, while the mathematical cognitive construct displayed near-perfect fit with a CFI of 1.000 and an RMSEA of 0.000. Average Variance Extracted values of 0.61, 0.56, and 0.68 confirmed convergent validity, and Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratios ranging from 0.51 to 0.77 stayed below the 0.85 ceiling, confirming that the three constructs are statistically distinct.

With the measurement model validated, the team turned to the central question. Linear regression revealed that communication skills significantly influence mathematical cognitive abilities, with the model producing an F statistic of 1698.101 and a p-value below 0.001. The unstandardized coefficient of 0.8885 means that a one-unit increase in communication skills is associated with a 0.8885-unit increase in cognitive skills, holding other variables constant. In plain terms, teachers who explain complex mathematical concepts clearly, listen actively, and provide constructive feedback tend to show firmer command of the underlying mathematics themselves, since organizing a clear explanation draws on the same cognitive skills used to understand it.

Mediation analysis using the SPSS PROCESS macro then tested whether teacher immediacy serves as a bridge between communication and cognition. The first path, from communication skills to immediacy, yielded a coefficient of 0.5548 with p below 0.001, indicating that teachers with stronger communication skills exhibit noticeably higher immediacy behaviors. The second path, from immediacy to cognitive skills, produced a coefficient of 0.0602 with p equal to 0.0073. Because both paths are significant, immediacy partially mediates the relationship: it adds a positive indirect influence, but the direct effect of communication skills remains far larger in magnitude, as reflected in the much bigger regression coefficient.

The moderation analysis delivered the study’s most counterintuitive result. The interaction term between communication skills and immediacy carried a coefficient of minus 0.0020 with p below 0.001, a small but statistically significant negative effect. This means that the positive influence of communication skills on cognitive abilities weakens slightly as teacher immediacy increases. In other words, communication has its strongest association with mathematical cognition among teachers with lower levels of immediacy, while the relationship is somewhat attenuated among the warmest teachers. The researchers caution that because the interaction coefficient is small in magnitude, the slopes diverge only slightly even though the difference is statistically significant, and simple slope analyses confirmed that communication remains the dominant influence across all levels of immediacy.

Among the demographic covariates, gender did not significantly moderate the relationship, with p equal to 0.12, suggesting that the communication-cognition link does not meaningfully differ between male and female teachers. Educational level, however, did moderate the relationship at p equal to 0.03, as did institutional origin at p equal to 0.04. Yet the descriptive comparisons produced a surprise: teachers with bachelor’s degrees scored higher on average in both cognitive skills, 59.76 versus 54.24, and communication skills, 59.58 versus 53.40, than those with master’s degrees. The authors suggest this counterintuitive pattern may reflect differences in curriculum focus between degree programs, or the smaller subsample of master’s degree holders, and they emphasize the need for careful interpretation rather than broad generalization.

Comparisons between the two countries revealed that Indonesian teachers scored higher on average in both cognitive skills, 59.60 versus 54.83, and communication skills, 59.35 versus 54.34, than their Malaysian counterparts, though the authors stress that the much smaller Malaysian subsample of 48 teachers reduces statistical power and demands caution. The discussion notes that the two education systems differ in pedagogical culture: Indonesia has often emphasized more traditional, teacher-centered methods, while Malaysia has pushed harder toward student-centered and interactive approaches. The study’s practical message is clear for policymakers in both nations: targeted training in communication skills should be the priority for strengthening teachers’ mathematical cognition, with immediacy behaviors cultivated as a supportive complement rather than a substitute. The authors acknowledge the cross-sectional design and convenience sampling as limitations, and call for further research into how curriculum design, professional experience, and institutional context shape the interplay between communication, warmth, and mathematical thinking.

Subject of Research: Effects of communication skills and teacher immediacy on the mathematical cognitive abilities of elementary school teachers in Indonesia and Malaysia

Article Title: Communication skills and teacher immediacy effects on mathematical cognitive abilities among elementary educators in Indonesia and Malaysia

Article References: Firdaus, F. M., Maulyda, M. A., Kurniawati, & Razali, F. B. (2026). Communication skills and teacher immediacy effects on mathematical cognitive abilities among elementary educators in Indonesia and Malaysia. Discover Education, 5(1), Article 1190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-026-02328-6

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44217-026-02328-6

Keywords: teacher immediacy, communication skills, mathematics education, elementary teachers, Indonesia, Malaysia, mediation analysis, cognitive abilities, Communication, skills, teacher, immediacy