In a recent groundbreaking study published in Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, researchers have delved deep into the complex emotions of shame and guilt within Arab populations, marking a significant advancement in cross-cultural psychological measurement. Employing the Personal Feelings Questionnaire 2 (PFQ-2), translated into Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), this study rigorously validates the instrument’s psychometric properties, while shedding light on the intricate dynamics underlying these self-conscious emotions and their relationship with psychological distress.
The research team, drawing on a robust sample of 281 participants from Libya and the United Arab Emirates, navigated age ranges spanning from 18 to 54 years, with a predominant female representation of over 74%. Most participants were university graduates, and all were fluent in MSA, allowing a culturally coherent framework for administering and analyzing the PFQ-2. This careful selection ensured the translation’s semantic fidelity and the appropriateness of cultural content, paving the way for reliable data on shame and guilt proneness in these distinct yet connected societies.
Central to the study is the PFQ-2’s dual-factor structure designed to distinguish shame and guilt as separate constructs—both pivotal in understanding moral emotions but often conflated in empirical research. Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) tailored for ordinal data, the researchers confirmed that the shame and guilt dimensions are indeed discrete yet interrelated components attuned to the nuances of Arab cultural contexts. Their CFA results, assessed through rigorous fit indices like the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and Comparative Fit Index (CFI), indicate robust model fit, reinforcing the scale’s structural integrity.
The adoption of the Partial Credit Model (PCM) within the Item Response Theory framework allowed a fine-grained examination of each questionnaire item’s performance. Rather than treating all items homogeneously, the PCM analyzed threshold parameters across the scale’s ordered response categories, illuminating the varying difficulty levels associated with endorsing shame or guilt items. Additionally, fit statistics such as Infit and Outfit mean square values maintained within the ideal range (0.7–1.3) attested to the scale’s reliability and precision at the item level.
Beyond psychometric rigor, this study bridged the measurement models to real-world psychological phenomena. Resilience, operationalized by the Brief Resilience Scale, along with intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity assessed via the Muslim Religiosity Scale, were integrated into a complex structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis. This model explored how psychological distress mediates the relationships between these factors and proneness to shame and guilt, providing a nuanced map of emotional processing shaped by cultural, spiritual, and individual resilience contexts.
Strikingly, the psychological distress scale (DASS-8), encompassing depression, anxiety, and stress subscales, demonstrated high internal consistency, which bolstered the study’s capacity to probe these affective states’ interplay with shame and guilt. The comprehensive use of contemporary psychometric tools, including McDonald’s omega coefficients for internal consistency, bolstered the validity and replicability of findings in this domain, transcending previous limitations associated with reliance solely on Cronbach’s alpha.
Importantly, the researchers emphasized the methodological merits of using self-administered, anonymous online platforms to collect data, safeguarding participant confidentiality and minimizing researcher bias. By harnessing automated systems and limiting direct interactions, the research design reflects modern ethical standards while enhancing measurement objectivity, an approach especially critical in studies touching on sensitive affective experiences such as shame and guilt.
The study’s geopolitical context also invites reflection. By focusing on populations largely underrepresented in Western-based psychological research, such as Libyans and residents of the UAE, this work challenges the universal applicability of many psychological constructs and instruments. It underscores the importance of culturally sensitive adaptation and validation of psychological tools to address socio-cultural divergences in emotional expression and cognition.
Findings revealed that shame-proneness tends to align more closely with feelings of humiliation and embarrassment—emotions deeply intertwined with social perception and honor cultures prevalent in Arab societies. Conversely, guilt appeared linked to remorse and personal regret, reflecting more internalized moral standards. This distinction is paramount when designing mental health interventions tailored for these communities, where the stigma associated with shame may exacerbate psychological distress or impede help-seeking behaviors.
The interplay between religiosity and emotional distress also emerged as a pivotal theme. Intrinsic religiosity, the sincere personal commitment to faith, displayed complex associations with lower psychological distress and moderated guilt proneness. Meanwhile, extrinsic religiosity, encompassing outward religious practices, bore differential effects, underscoring the multifaceted role of spirituality in emotional regulation and coping within Arab cultural milieus.
Moreover, resilience’s buffering capacity was confirmed through sophisticated SEM models, indicating that individuals with higher resilience metrics tend to experience reduced distress, which in turn mediates the influence of shame and guilt. Such findings have broad implications for positive psychology interventions aimed at enhancing adaptive capacities in face of adversity, especially in regions confronting socio-political upheaval and economic challenges.
As the first large-scale empirical validation of the Arabic PFQ-2 scale aligning with Arab sociocultural realities, this study lays the groundwork for future research on moral emotions in the Middle East. Its methodological sophistication—spanning confirmatory factor analysis, item response theory, and structural equation modeling—provides a template for psychometric validation across diverse languages and cultures, signaling a transformative moment in global psychological research.
Furthermore, the ethical rigor underpinning the study, validated by institutional review board approval, fortifies confidence in the integrity of its research practices while honoring participant dignity and privacy. It is a vivid demonstration that high-quality, culturally grounded psychological research can be conducted with sensitivity and scientific rigor, even in online and decentralized study environments.
The research team’s choice to examine the mediating role of psychological distress expands the traditional binary focus on shame and guilt, acknowledging the layered emotional experiences intertwined with psychopathology. This integrated framework enriches theoretical models of self-conscious emotions by situating them within broader mental health paradigms, essential for mental health professionals seeking culturally competent assessment tools.
Altogether, this pioneering research promises wide-reaching impacts on clinical practice, mental health policy, and cross-cultural psychology. By providing validated instruments and illuminating key emotional mechanisms, it empowers clinicians and researchers to better understand and address the psychological burdens endured in Arab societies, fostering culturally informed pathways to healing and emotional well-being.
Subject of Research: Validation of the Personal Feelings Questionnaire 2 (PFQ-2) in Arab populations, focusing on the roles of shame, guilt, psychological distress, resilience, and religiosity.
Article Title: Shame and guilt in Arab populations: validation of PFQ-2 and the mediating role of psychological distress.
Article References:
Ali, M., Mohamed Abdelrahman, R., Alyousef, D.S.A. et al. Shame and guilt in Arab populations: validation of PFQ-2 and the mediating role of psychological distress. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 12, 1581 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05864-y
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