In a groundbreaking study published in Nature, researchers have unveiled compelling evidence that positive selection exerts a profound influence on the mutational landscape of the male germline, with significant implications for the transmission of disease-causing mutations. By leveraging deep sequencing of sperm samples, the study meticulously charts how the burden of genetic variants linked to monogenic diseases accumulates with paternal age, revealing a complex interplay between neutral mutation processes and selective forces that favor mutations offering a clonal advantage in the male germline.
The investigation focused on quantifying variant allele frequencies (VAFs) across diverse mutation classes in sperm cells, comparing empirical data to predictions from established germline mutation models. Notably, mutations regarded as neutral—including synonymous and noncoding variants—accumulated linearly with increasing age, consistent with the neutral drift hypothesis. This suggests a baseline, age-dependent mutational process not influenced by selective pressures. However, missense, truncating, and coding indel mutations deviated substantially from this pattern in older individuals, indicating they are subject to positive selection that permits their clonally amplified expansion within the germline.
Central to the study was the estimation of the proportion of sperm harboring mutations with the potential to cause dominant developmental disorders. Utilizing a stringent variant filtering strategy that integrated ClinVar pathogenicity annotations and high CADD scores in well-characterized developmental disorder genes, the researchers uncovered a striking enrichment of disease-associated variants beyond neutral expectations. Whereas mutation models predicted disease mutations to occur in approximately 0.73% of sperm in 30-year-olds increasing to 1.6% by age 70, observed data indicated actual fractions of around 2% and 4.5%, respectively. This enrichment corresponds to nearly a threefold increase, underscoring the potent effect of positive selection enhancing lineage expansion of sperm carrying pathogenic mutations.
Interestingly, this elevated pathogenic burden was not driven by a few high-frequency variants but rather by a diverse collection of many low-frequency mutations uniquely present in individual sperm cells. On average, each individual carried about 18 distinct disease-associated variants, and over 99% of such mutations were found only once, highlighting the pervasive yet subtle nature of positive selection shaping the male germline’s mutational profile.
Further analysis revealed a robust age-dependent increase in the prevalence of known driver mutations—those previously implicated in conferring selective advantages to germ cells—with rates rising from 0.5% in younger men to 2.6% in septuagenarians. Approximately two-thirds of these driver mutations overlapped with variants considered likely pathogenic, reinforcing the notion that positive selection on specific germline genes substantially contributes to the elevated burden of potentially deleterious alleles in sperm.
The mutational landscape painted by this research reveals overlapping yet distinct roles of driver mutations and disease-causing variants in the male germline. Estimates suggest that about 3.3% of sperm cells carry likely disease-associated mutations, with roughly one-third of these explainable by neutral mutation processes, one-third attributable to known driver mutations, and the remaining third unexplained by current models. This residual fraction points to the existence of yet unidentified driver genes or alternative selective mechanisms influencing germline mutation dynamics.
Intriguingly, mutations classified as drivers but not meeting current pathogenicity criteria were estimated to be present in approximately 0.6% of sperm. Their clinical significance remains ambiguous and may encompass variants associated with incomplete penetrance, embryonic lethality, or multifactorial inheritance patterns. Such findings indicate the germline harbors a spectrum of mutations with diverse biological impacts, some potentially contributing subtle influences on offspring phenotype or reproductive success.
A striking feature emerging from this study is the disproportionate contribution of a relatively small cadre of genes to the overall pathogenic and selective mutation burden. Among 374 implicated genes, 33 harboring five or more independent variants—most under positive selection—accounted for nearly 43% of the mutational load. Within this subset, six genes (KDM5B, MIB1, SMAD6, PRRC2A, NF1, and PTPN11) alone explained over 20% of the observed fraction, emphasizing focal points of germline selection and disease risk concentrated in specific genomic loci.
Addressing potential extrinsic factors influencing germline mutation accumulation, the study evaluated correlations between mutation burdens and known environmental or behavioral risk factors such as body mass index (BMI), smoking, and alcohol consumption. Surprisingly, no significant associations were detected in sperm samples across multiple sequencing platforms, suggesting a relative resilience of the male germline to common mutagenic exposures. In contrast, blood-derived somatic cells exhibited expected mutagenic signatures linked to smoking and alcohol, highlighting tissue-specific differences in mutation susceptibility and repair capacity.
The mechanistic basis underpinning positive selection in sperm remains a fertile area for exploration. Potential drivers include mutations conferring proliferative or survival advantages to spermatogonial stem cells, allowing clonal expansions that translate into higher VAFs in mature sperm. These dynamics resonate with established paradigms in somatic evolution and cancer biology, yet the implications extend profoundly into reproductive genetics and population health.
These observations raise critical questions about the impact of paternal age on genetic disease risk. The increased frequency of mutation-bearing sperm in older men suggests a paternal age effect not merely attributable to passive mutation accrual but actively shaped by selective processes augmenting the transmission probability of deleterious alleles. This insight reshapes our understanding of germline evolution and the etiology of de novo dominant disorders.
Moreover, the findings suggest evolutionary trade-offs wherein mutations enhancing spermatogonial fitness paradoxically heighten disease risk in offspring, reflecting complex selective pressures at the intersection of reproduction and organismal health. Elucidating these trade-offs will be vital for interpreting the evolutionary shaping of the human genome and informing reproductive counseling strategies.
The technique of deep sperm sequencing applied in this study represents a transformative approach, enabling unprecedented resolution of germline mutational architecture and dynamics. Such methods open avenues for future investigations into the spectrum of mutational processes, selection regimes, and environmental influences sculpting the human germline.
Ultimately, these discoveries underscore the necessity of integrating evolutionary genetics into clinical paradigms addressing genetic disease origin and inheritance. Understanding positive selection in the male germline holds the promise of refining risk assessment, guiding reproductive decisions, and unveiling novel targets for intervention to mitigate the burden of heritable disease.
Subject of Research:
Positive selection and mutational dynamics in the male germline and their impact on the prevalence of disease-causing mutations in sperm.
Article Title:
Sperm sequencing reveals extensive positive selection in the male germline.
Article References:
Neville, M.D.C., Lawson, A.R.J., Sanghvi, R. et al. Sperm sequencing reveals extensive positive selection in the male germline. Nature (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09448-3
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