Teacher Availability Linked to Persistence in Spanish Basic VET

A three-year longitudinal study conducted in the Balearic Islands of Spain has identified specific dimensions of teacher engagement that are associated with student persistence in Basic Vocational Education and Training (Basic VET). The research, published in the journal Heliyon, examined how socio-demographic characteristics, motivations for course selection, and emotional engagement with teachers influence the likelihood of dropping out of this educational program. The study focused on a cohort of students who began Basic VET in the 2015–2016 academic year, providing a detailed look at the factors that contribute to academic perseverance or disengagement in a region with high rates of early leaving from education and training.

Basic VET in Spain was introduced during the 2014–2015 academic year specifically for individuals aged 15 to 17 who had not completed Compulsory Secondary Education. The program is designed to provide a qualification level 1 and/or a secondary education diploma, allowing students to continue their studies in intermediate VET or academic pathways. Despite its intended role in reducing early leaving from education and training, the program faces significant challenges with high dropout rates. National data indicate that 41.7% of Basic VET students dropped out, with the rate in the Balearic Islands standing at 40.4%, highlighting the urgency for applied research on dropout prevention.

The study utilized a quantitative methodological perspective to track the training and employment pathways of a representative sample of students from Mallorca. The initial sample comprised 354 students, selected through stratified random sampling based on gender, professional families, type of center, and location. Over the three-year follow-up period, 116 participants were lost to follow-up, resulting in a final sample of 238 students. The researchers noted that the attrition did not significantly alter the composition of the final sample regarding baseline characteristics such as sex, immigrant status, grade repetition, or economic difficulties.

Data were collected through three questionnaires administered over successive years, starting two to three months after the beginning of the first year. The questionnaires measured students’ attachment to their studies, sociodemographic information, and engagement with teachers. The instrument was externally validated by fourteen independent experts, demonstrating high reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.86. The study analyzed variables including gender, nationality, familial responsibilities, financial constraints, course repetitions, and the motivations behind the choice of study.

The results indicated that while males had a slightly higher dropout rate than females at 56.63% compared to 50.00%, this difference was not statistically significant. Similarly, gender, nationality, having children, and course repetition were not established as determining indicators in the dropout process. However, economic difficulties were more frequently reported among students who dropped out, with 38.46% of dropouts citing this factor compared to 26.85% of those who persevered. This association aligns with existing literature in other VET stages, suggesting that financial constraints play a crucial role in student disengagement.

The study also examined the motivations behind students’ choice of Basic VET programs. The primary reasons for selection included personal preference, improved working conditions, and the availability of job offers. Students who dropped out were more likely to cite extrinsic reasons, such as being unable to pursue other studies or seeking better job offers, compared to those who persisted. In contrast, intrinsic motivation, specifically liking the chosen course, was significantly higher among students who completed or continued their studies. This finding underscores the importance of personalized educational and career guidance in fostering professional identity and academic commitment.

A central finding of the research was the role of emotional engagement with teachers in student persistence. The study analyzed nine items related to teacher engagement, including availability, listening skills, honesty, and the sense of security provided by the center. Students who persevered rated teacher availability, listening, and openness and honesty more highly than those who dropped out. Conversely, students who dropped out reported feeling significantly safer in the center than those who did not drop out. This suggests that while a sense of security is valued, it may not be sufficient on its own to prevent dropout without other supportive teacher behaviors.

The researchers further investigated whether teacher engagement was particularly relevant for students with lower initial interest in their studies or those whose choice was constrained by a lack of alternatives. Among students with lower initial interest, those who did not drop out rated teacher availability and openness and honesty more highly. For students with a constrained study choice, perseverance was associated with higher ratings of teacher availability, listening, and concern for the student body. Teacher availability emerged as the only dimension consistently associated with perseverance across both subgroups, highlighting its potential importance in supporting students facing academic and personal challenges.

The study acknowledges several limitations, including the final sample size and the attrition associated with the longitudinal follow-up. While the additional attrition analysis showed no statistically significant differences between retained and lost participants in observed baseline characteristics, differences in unobserved characteristics cannot be ruled out. Furthermore, given the number of comparisons conducted, individual results close to conventional significance thresholds should be interpreted cautiously in conjunction with their confidence intervals and effect sizes.

The findings suggest that educational interventions should focus on enhancing teacher practices, particularly in areas of availability, listening, and honesty, to mitigate the socioeconomic and educational inequalities affecting Basic VET students. The study emphasizes the need for unbiased educational guidance and the expansion of training choices to facilitate decisions based on intrinsic criteria. By addressing these factors, the educational system can better support the continuity of studies and improve the labor market integration of at-risk youth.

Future research could explore the relationship between Basic VET dropouts and other aspects of student engagement, such as relationships with peers and family support. The study contributes to the limited body of empirical information on Basic VET in Spain, providing relevant insights for the design of more effective pedagogical strategies and educational policies. The overarching objective of such initiatives should be to promote continued studies and foster progression toward higher stages of vocational training and academic pursuits.

This research underscores the complexity of dropout processes in vocational education, which involve the interaction of individual, institutional, and contextual factors. By identifying specific dimensions of teacher engagement that are associated with perseverance, the study offers a basis for targeted educational interventions. These interventions aim to reduce dropout rates at the initial juncture of vocational training, thereby contributing to the broader goals of sustainable economic growth and educational equity in Europe.

The study was embedded within a broader European effort to reduce early leaving from education and training, a metric defined as the percentage of individuals aged 18 to 24 whose highest level of education is lower secondary or below and who are not pursuing any form of training. As of 2022, Spain’s rate stood at 13.9%, significantly higher than the European Union average of 9.6%. The Balearic Islands, where this research was conducted, recorded an even higher rate of 18.2%, reflecting the region’s specific labor market dynamics. This regional context is crucial because the islands are specialized tourist areas with a service sector that acts as a magnet for young individuals with low qualifications, creating a labor market that readily accommodates youth who leave school early.

High rates of early leaving have substantial implications for youth employment pathways. By 2023, the overall unemployment rate for young people aged 16 to 29 in Spain was 29.3%, but for those with low educational attainment, it reached 43.4%. Additionally, the rate of young people neither studying nor working, known as NEETs, was 12.9% in 2022, with those having a low level of education accounting for 17% of this total. These figures illustrate the strong correlation between educational disengagement and economic instability, underscoring why reducing dropout rates in Basic VET is considered a fundamental objective for promoting sustainable development and educational equity in Europe.

The theoretical framework for this study posits that dropping out of school is not a single event but a long and complex process of progressive disengagement. This process involves the interaction of individual, institutional, and contextual factors. Previous international research on vocational education and training has suggested that being male, having a foreign nationality, and experiencing economic difficulties are factors that affect the likelihood of dropout. However, this study found that while economic difficulties were associated with dropping out, gender and nationality did not show statistically significant differences in this specific Basic VET cohort. This challenges some theoretical backgrounds regarding student dropout profiles in other vocational stages, suggesting that the inclusive nature of current compulsory education in Spain may be mitigating certain socio-educational inequalities.

Student engagement is conceptualized in this research as a meta-construct encompassing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components. The emotional dimension specifically assesses students’ perceptions of their interactions with educators and peers, as well as the support and perceived commitment of their families. It evaluates the extent of security, honesty, and attention students perceive in their relationships with teachers, the level of support and respect from peers, and the availability of family support in addressing conflicts. Research findings in vocational education and training underline the significance of fostering positive student-teacher relationships as a preventative measure against dropouts, particularly for students who may enter the system with a history of academic failure and diminished interest in their studies.

The study’s methodology involved a quantitative approach using three questionnaires completed over three successive years. The first questionnaire, administered two to three months after the start of the first year, measured students’ attachment to their studies and collected sociodemographic information. The second and third questionnaires, administered in the following years, included a filter question regarding their status in VET studies to classify students into completion, dropout, or continued studying categories. The instrument was based on the Christenson and Reschly model of association among student contexts, engagement, and results, and was externally validated by fourteen independent experts, ensuring high reliability and relevance of the items used to measure engagement and other variables.

The analysis of study choice motivations revealed that intrinsic factors, such as personal interest in the course, were more strongly associated with perseverance than extrinsic factors, such as job offers or working conditions. Students who dropped out were more likely to report that they were unable to pursue other studies or that they chose the course for better job prospects. This finding highlights the importance of personalized and realistic educational and career guidance processes from an early age to help students develop professional identities and construct future academic and professional prospects. It also points to the need to increase the number and diversity of training locations, which are particularly scarce in Basic VET, to facilitate choices based on intrinsic criteria rather than constrained options.

The role of teachers in Basic VET is distinct from other educational stages, often involving continuous support, motivation, tutoring, and guidance. These elements can function as mitigating factors for individual and educational inequalities, especially for students with a history of academic failure, discipline problems, and lower academic performance. The study suggests that teacher practices, coupled with unbiased educational guidance, are crucial in mitigating the socioeconomic and educational inequalities affecting Basic VET students. By enhancing teaching practices and improving guidance systems, the educational system can better support the continuity of studies and improve the labor market integration of at-risk youth, contributing to the broader goals of educational equity and sustainable economic growth.

Subject of Research: Factors influencing persistence and dropout in Spanish Basic Vocational Education and Training

Article Title: Influencing factors on persistence and drop-out in basic vocational education and training

Article References: Pinya-Medina, C., Tugores-Ques, M., & Quintana-Murci, E. (2026). Influencing factors on persistence and drop-out in basic vocational education and training. Heliyon, 12(16), Article e45703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2026.e45703

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2026.e45703

Keywords: Basic VET, Student Dropout, Teacher Engagement, Vocational Education, Longitudinal Study, Educational Policy, Spain, Student Persistence, Influencing, factors, persistence, drop-out