In an era dominated by streaming platforms and digital connectivity, the music industry is facing a paradoxical transformation. A comprehensive new study conducted by the Oxford Internet Institute in collaboration with the University of Groningen shines a spotlight on the conflicting experiences of musicians across five diverse nations: Brazil, Chile, the Netherlands, Nigeria, and South Korea. This research challenges conventional narratives by revealing how streaming services simultaneously offer unprecedented visibility while failing to provide sustainable income for the majority of artists.
The study surveyed nearly 1,200 musicians, uncovering a pervasive sensation of being trapped within what researchers have termed the “streaming paradox.” On one hand, streaming platforms have democratized access to audiences worldwide—artists can now release music and gain recognition more easily than ever before. However, this democratization comes at a high cost. The financial returns from these platforms remain minimal for most, with artists struggling to generate meaningful income solely through digital royalties. The paradox is amplified as musicians find themselves caught in an endless cycle of content creation and audience engagement, dedicating significant time to social media management, promotion, and tour planning in hopes of maintaining visibility.
A striking dimension of the report lies in the stark geographical variation in musicians’ experiences. Whereas an overwhelming 83% of Nigerian artists reported career improvements since the rise of streaming, only 14% of their counterparts in the Netherlands echoed similar optimism. These disparities highlight how cultural contexts, economic frameworks, and local music ecosystems critically shape artists’ ability to harness or be hindered by digital platforms. For musicians in countries with less established music industries or different infrastructural dynamics, streaming might serve as a vital channel for exposure and opportunity, while in more saturated markets, competition and platform economics constrain potential benefits.
On a global scale, the financial realities remain daunting. The study found that 77% of the musicians earn under €10,000 annually from their music, underscoring the insufficiency of streaming royalties to support most artists’ livelihoods. Moreover, dissatisfaction with royalties is widespread, with 83% expressing frustration at current remuneration levels. This dissatisfaction coexists with the acknowledgment of streaming’s importance, as 81% view it as critical for career advancement. Paradoxically, however, fewer than half report an improved overall situation since streaming became the dominant mode of music consumption.
Economically, an intriguing pattern emerges when contrasting income brackets. Lower-income musicians are disproportionately more likely to classify streaming as “extremely important” for their careers, with 55% endorsing this view. Meanwhile, higher earners tend to perceive streaming as less essential, often characterizing it as “not that important.” This divergence suggests that for less established or lower-paid artists, access to streaming platforms is a crucial entry point into the industry, even if the resulting income is limited. Conversely, established artists may rely on alternative revenue streams such as live performances, merchandise, or licensing.
The study also reveals that the demands placed upon musicians transcend mere music production. Nearly a quarter (23%) dedicate over half their working hours to supplementary tasks like managing social media profiles, organizing tours, and maintaining direct communication with fans. In Chile, this figure escalates to 30%, indicating regional nuances in the scope of duties artists must negotiate. These activities are not peripheral; they have become integral to sustaining a career in the digital age, transforming the traditional musician role into a hybrid of artist, marketer, and community manager.
Promotion has intensified universally. A significant 69% of respondents report spending more time on online self-promotion today than a few years ago. This shift reflects the platform economy’s demand for continuous content output and audience cultivation, which can eclipse the time available for creative endeavors. Artists grapple with this labor imbalance, facing mental and temporal pressures that potentially impede artistic innovation and well-being.
In terms of technological adoption, the report documents a reticence among musicians to employ artificial intelligence (AI) or automation tools in fan interactions. A striking 89% do not use such technologies, highlighting a preference for authentic human engagement over algorithmic intermediaries. This hesitance may be linked to concerns about maintaining personal connections with listeners or skepticism about AI’s role in creative industries.
Notably, apprehension exists regarding AI-generated music and its implications. Among the surveyed countries, Dutch musicians express the greatest anxiety about AI content flooding streaming services and competing with human-created art. This concern points to broader debates about the integrity of creative labor, the definition of artistry, and the potential displacement caused by machine-generated works in creative economies.
Dr. Robert Prey, Associate Professor of Digital Culture at the Oxford Internet Institute and co-author of the report, emphasizes that while digital platforms are vital tools for visibility and audience expansion, their contribution to artists’ income is minimal. More importantly, the labor required to succeed on these platforms is reshaping what it means to be a musician in the 21st century. Cultural, economic, and social factors converge to produce varied experiences for artists worldwide, underscoring that one-size-fits-all solutions to the challenges posed by streaming and platformization are insufficient.
The study also illuminates the evolving nature of artistic labor amidst technological shifts. Musicians are no longer solely creators of music but increasingly embody multifaceted roles encompassing digital marketing, fan engagement, and brand management. This shift demands new skill sets and reallocates creative time toward often undervalued or uncompensated activities. The platform era is thus redefining artistic identities and career trajectories in profound ways.
Furthermore, the research cautions against simplistic optimism regarding streaming platforms as democratizing forces. Although access has broadened, the economic structures underpinning these platforms typically favor top-tier artists, leaving the vast majority in precarious financial positions. The report calls for a nuanced understanding of how cultural expectations, market dynamics, and technological affordances collectively shape musicians’ lived realities across different global contexts.
Funded by the European Research Council and conducted under the PlatforMuse project at the University of Groningen, this research marks a significant contribution to the discourse on digital cultural labor. By coupling survey data with comprehensive interviews, the team paints a multi-dimensional portrait of musicians’ professional landscapes in a platform- and AI-intensive era. This work offers critical insights for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and artists themselves as they navigate the complexities introduced by rapid technological change.
As streaming platforms and artificial intelligence continue to redefine the contours of music production, distribution, and consumption, this research underscores the urgent need to rethink support structures for artists. Ensuring equitable compensation, sustainable careers, and healthy creative ecosystems requires collective action informed by rigorous social scientific understanding—precisely the kind of scholarship this study exemplifies.
Subject of Research:
Global experiences and perspectives of musicians navigating streaming platforms and AI technologies across Brazil, Chile, the Netherlands, Nigeria, and South Korea.
Article Title:
The Streaming Paradox: Musicians’ Visibility and Financial Struggles in the Digital Era
News Publication Date:
March 2025 (Survey Conducted); Report Released November 2025
Web References:
Available publicly from the Oxford Internet Institute website under ‘Musicians at Work in the Platform and AI Era’ report.
References:
Study by Femke de Rijk and Dr Robert Prey under the PlatforMuse project, University of Groningen, funded by the European Research Council.
Keywords
Streaming platforms, music industry, digital labor, musicians’ income, artificial intelligence, platform economy, digital culture, music promotion, global music markets, artist visibility, cultural contexts, economic disparity
