For generations, schoolchildren in the United States have been taught the agricultural legend of the “three sisters”: corn, beans, and squash cultivated together in a synergistic planting method attributed to Indigenous peoples. This tradition rightly honors the ingenuity of Native American farmers, yet it barely scratches the surface of the rich agricultural history of eastern North America. In reality, maize, beans, and certain varieties of squash became dominant only in the centuries immediately preceding European contact, around 900 AD. Long before this, Indigenous communities were cultivating an array of diverse crops, many of which faded from agricultural use following colonization, leaving an incomplete picture of early farming systems in this region.
Natalie Mueller, an expert in agrobiodiversity and an assistant professor of archaeology at Washington University in St. Louis, has devoted her research to unearthing these forgotten agricultural traditions. In her recent publication in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B dated May 15, 2024, Mueller synthesizes decades of archaeological, botanical, and ethnographic evidence to reveal a more complex and ecologically integrated prehistoric agricultural system. Her work emphasizes the potential revival of these “sleeping” crops and agricultural techniques, positioning them not as lost curiosities but as viable alternatives adaptable to today’s climatic challenges.
Mueller challenges the long-standing term “lost crops,” opting instead for “sleeping crops” to reposition these plants and their agricultural histories within a living continuum of Indigenous stewardship. This linguistic shift was inspired by members of the St. Louis Native American Women’s Care Circle, who emphasized that the notion of “lost” perpetuates colonial myths of extinction and erasure. To Indigenous seed keepers, seeds possess agency; they are dormant, waiting for their caretakers to reconnect and fulfill reciprocal responsibilities. Such a framework underscores contemporary movements focused on Indigenous food sovereignty and seed reclamation—efforts that breathe life back into these neglected crops.
The crops Mueller studies are often dismissed as weeds: species such as little barley (Hordeum pusillum), maygrass (Phalaris caroliniana), sumpweed (Iva annua), goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri), and knotweed (Polygonum erectum). These were once intentionally domesticated and cultivated components of Indigenous agricultural systems that extended well beyond the better-known triad of corn, beans, and squash. While squashes and sunflowers remain common today, the domesticated varieties of these other species have largely vanished. Mueller’s work calls attention to the expansive biodiversity once managed by Indigenous peoples, which included not just annual crops but also perennial plants integrated within forest, wetland, and prairie ecosystems.
What makes this ancient system remarkable is its ability to reconcile productivity with biodiversity. Unlike many modern, industrialized agricultural paradigms that prioritize monoculture and high yields at the expense of ecological health, prehistoric Indigenous agriculture in eastern North America fostered thriving, resilient agroecosystems. These systems optimized food outputs while preserving habitat complexity, soil integrity, and ecological functions. The methodological insights gleaned from these ancient practices hold profound implications for sustainable agriculture, particularly in the face of accelerating climate change and environmental degradation.
One pressing contemporary problem where such knowledge may prove invaluable involves the increasing frequency and intensity of flooding events throughout the Midwestern United States. Current agricultural staples like corn and soybeans are ill-suited to withstand unpredictable flood dynamics, making floodplain fields vulnerable to catastrophic damage. Muller proposes the reintegration of wetland and flood-adapted crops into these landscapes. These species, by their very nature, demand fewer inputs, reducing the reliance on artificial soil amendments and costly infrastructure aimed at flood control, and thus potentially offering a more resilient and ecologically sound agricultural alternative.
Engagement with Indigenous communities is central to Mueller’s approach in cultivating these “sleeping” crops anew. Historical ecology elsewhere has supported collaborations that simultaneously advance scientific understanding while facilitating Indigenous reclamation of ancestral lands and resources. Such collaborative research remains sparse in the eastern North American context, where forced displacements and complex jurisdictional legacies complicate access to traditional territories. Nonetheless, promising models exist, such as the Rivercane Restoration Alliance, which brings together government agencies, conservation organizations, and tribal nations in a cooperative effort to restore cultural keystone species and promote ecological restoration.
Within her own research lab at Washington University, Mueller has begun cautiously resurrecting these crops through seed banking and dissemination initiatives. The lab maintains a repository of progenitor seeds of these underappreciated species, distributing them to educational institutions, Indigenous growers, and students. Alongside these efforts, they offer cultivation guides detailing practical aspects of growing and processing the seeds. This work is an early but critical step toward experimental archaeology and applied research aimed at understanding the ecological requirements of these species and their potential to be reintegrated into contemporary food systems.
Crucially, Mueller’s research scope is expanding beyond annual “sleeping” crops to encompass perennial food plants traditionally cared for by Indigenous peoples. Species like American lotus (Nelumbo lutea), sunchokes (Helianthus tuberosus), and persimmons (Diospyros virginiana) illustrate how Native agriculturalists enhanced natural ecosystems without imposing homogenizing tendencies typical of industrial farming. These perennial plants often thrive within forests and wetlands, and their integration into managed landscapes demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of ecological interactions and resource management.
The overarching genius of eastern North America’s ancient agricultural system lies in this alliance between humans and ecosystems, characterized by a nuanced blending of cultivation and foraging. Rather than striving to dominate or replace natural biodiversity, Indigenous farmers worked in concert with it. This agroecological paradigm offers a template for creating resilient food systems that adapt to environmental variability while supporting biodiversity and ecosystem services fundamental to long-term agricultural sustainability.
This new synthesis of “sleeping” crops not only enriches our understanding of precolonial agriculture but also reframes agricultural heritage as dynamic and ongoing. It challenges the assumptions underpinning modern food systems and opens pathways toward diversification, resilience, and ecological harmony. As the urgency to address climate crises intensifies, revisiting Indigenous agricultural wisdom offers promising avenues for innovation and restoration, blending ancient knowledge with cutting-edge science and Indigenous sovereignty movements.
Mueller’s work underscores the critical importance of inclusive research frameworks that honor Indigenous epistemologies and stewardship. It is through this collaborative and respectful engagement that the agricultural potential of eastern North America’s “sleeping” crops can germinate once more—awakening forgotten seeds and planting new futures for diversified, sustainable, and culturally grounded food production.
Subject of Research: Agrobiodiversity and ancient agricultural systems of eastern North America, focusing on domesticated “sleeping” crops and Indigenous food sovereignty.
Article Title: The sleeping crops of eastern North America: a new synthesis
News Publication Date: May 15, 2024
Web References:
- Interview and research summary at Washington University in St. Louis Anthropology Department: https://anthropology.wustl.edu/people/natalie-mueller
- Original paper: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0192
- Rivercane Restoration Alliance: https://conserve-group.org/rra
- Lost Crops cultivation guides: https://sites.wustl.edu/lostcrops/lost-crops-cultivation-guides/
References: See DOI 10.1098/rstb.2024.0192
Keywords: Anthropology, Archaeology, Ethnobotany, Plant sciences, Sustainable agriculture, Climate change, Land use, Natural resources
