In the complex tapestry of bilingual communication, navigating numeral constructions in Russian presents a unique challenge—a phenomenon recently explored in-depth by researchers at the Higher School of Economics (HSE University) in Russia. Their study, analyzing over 4,000 instances of spoken Russian by bilingual individuals whose first language is not Russian, uncovers nuanced influences shaping non-standard numeral usage. The findings defy simplistic explanations centered solely on native language interference, highlighting instead a multifaceted interplay of linguistic, cognitive, and social factors that govern how numerals are employed in a second language context.
Numerals, often considered straightforward grammatical elements, reveal unexpected complexity in bilingual speech production. The researchers concentrated on numerals in spoken Russian from seven geographically and linguistically diverse regions of Russia, including Daghestan, Bashkortostan, and Karelia. The bilingual participants—originating from more than twenty different language backgrounds—provided a rich corpus of natural conversations, encompassing over 7,000 phrases containing numerals. From this extensive dataset, nearly 4,000 examples were carefully selected, focusing exclusively on cardinal forms and excluding ordinal and oblique case constructions to maintain analytical precision.
One of the pivotal insights of the study is the differentiation between frequently used numeral expressions and those less commonly encountered. Common combinations such as "two hours" or "five kilometers" showed a remarkable adherence to standard Russian grammatical norms, demonstrating that high-frequency usage fosters conformity to established forms. This finding aligns with frequency-based models of language acquisition, which propose that repeated exposure and usage solidify grammatical structures in the second language learner’s repertoire, overriding potential native language interference.
Conversely, numerals involving the values two, three, and four, along with collective numeral forms like dvoe and troe—used to reference groups of people—emerged as the most prone to non-standard realization. These forms are inherently grammatically complex in Russian, exhibiting morphosyntactic variations that challenge even native speakers. For bilingual speakers, whose native languages may possess divergent numerical classification systems or entirely lack collective numeral forms, the acquisition and consistent use of these structures become particularly fraught.
The study’s rigorous corpus-based methodology—grounded in extensive naturalistic data—permits a robust analysis of how bilingual speakers negotiate these linguistic challenges. The observed non-standard constructions do not uniformly reflect direct transfer from the speaker’s native grammar but appear more dynamically influenced by factors such as individual education levels, age, and importantly, the empirical frequency of the expressions in everyday interaction. This multidimensional influence underscores the notion that language acquisition in bilingual contexts is not merely transferive or deficit-driven but adaptive and usage-based.
Chiara Naccarato, co-author of the study and a Research Fellow at the HSE Linguistic Convergence Laboratory, clarifies a common misconception: "It cannot be said that bilinguals simply project the grammar of their native language onto Russian when they use it. Even if a native speaker grew up in an environment where numerals function differently than in Russian, it doesn’t mean they will consistently copy the structures of their native language when speaking Russian." This perspective refines our understanding of bilingual grammar, positioning it as a fluid system shaped by interaction rather than static substrate influence.
Moreover, the research highlights the prominence of regular usage frequency in solidifying second language structures, supporting emergentist views that language forms become entrenched through repetition and communicative necessity rather than abstract grammatical rule learning. This insight has profound implications not only for theoretical linguistics but also for pedagogical approaches to teaching Russian as a second language, suggesting that exposure to high-frequency numerals and their standard grammatical usage can significantly aid language acquisition.
The regional diversity represented in the study’s participant pool, reflecting a mosaic of linguistic ecologies, adds further depth. The influence of local languages like Nanai and Ulchi exemplifies the complexity of bilingual interaction zones, where diverse grammatical frameworks interface. However, the study refutes deterministic models equating native language grammar with second language output, emphasizing instead a probabilistic and interaction-based understanding of bilingual numeral usage.
Such probabilistic models better account for observed variability and the co-existence of standard and non-standard forms within speech communities. The researchers suggest that bilingual speakers modulate their use of numeral constructions based on communicative context, interlocutor expectations, and cognitive accessibility of forms, thereby enriching the expressive capabilities of Russian within multilingual milieus. This approach reflects broader sociolinguistic realities where language forms are negotiated and fluid rather than fixed.
Furthermore, the implications of the findings extend beyond linguistics into applied fields such as language education and policy planning. Understanding which numeral forms pose the greatest acquisition challenges enables educators to tailor instruction to the needs of bilingual learners, focusing pedagogical resources on the most salient areas of grammatical difficulty. Additionally, this knowledge informs the development of diagnostic tools and language assessment protocols that more accurately reflect bilingual speakers’ proficiency and challenges.
This study also paves the way for future inquiries into other grammatical domains where native language influence may interplay with usage-based acquisition, such as verb tense aspects, case marking, and syntactic structuring. The researchers emphasize the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration and advanced corpus linguistic techniques to unravel these complex patterns further. By continuously expanding cross-linguistic and cross-regional datasets, linguists can deepen their understanding of bilingual language dynamics in Russia’s multifaceted sociolinguistic environment.
Supported by HSE University’s Basic Research Programme as part of the Centres of Excellence project, this research exemplifies how corpus-based methodologies can illuminate the nuanced realities of language contact and acquisition. Its findings challenge traditional assumptions about bilingual interference and demonstrate the central role of usage frequency and social-linguistic context in shaping second language grammars. As Russian continues to function as a lingua franca across diverse ethnic and linguistic landscapes, such insights are not only academically significant but socially vital.
In conclusion, the investigation into non-standard numeral constructions in L2 Russian by HSE researchers elucidates the intricate mechanisms underpinning bilingual language use. It reveals that while native language grammar exerts some influence, the frequency of use and sociolinguistic factors are equally, if not more, determinative in shaping how bilingual speakers employ numerals. This comprehensive approach shines a light on the adaptive strategies bilingual speakers deploy and holds promising implications for linguistic theory, language teaching, and policy development in multilingual societies.
Subject of Research: Non-standard numeral constructions in Russian as a second language among bilingual speakers from diverse native language backgrounds.
Article Title: Non-standard numeral constructions in L2 Russian: A corpus-based study
News Publication Date: 27-Mar-2025
Web References:
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/13670069251323203
References:
HSE Linguistic Convergence Laboratory
Keywords:
Linguistics, Bilingualism, Grammar, Speech, Multilingualism
