In the relentless pursuit of advancing perovskite solar cell technology, recent developments have taken a significant leap forward by addressing one of the core limitations in tin-based devices. Fullerene derivatives have long been the electron transport layers (ETLs) of choice, primarily for their efficacy in enhancing power conversion efficiencies. However, these materials present several formidable barriers, including costly production, intricate synthesis processes, suboptimal electron mobilities, and restricted compatibility with tin perovskite interfaces. A groundbreaking study recently published in Nature Energy introduces an innovative strategy to circumvent these challenges, deploying fluorinated triple-acceptor polymers as non-fullerene alternatives. These polymers manifest not only as a cost-effective substitute but also deliver remarkable improvements in electron mobility, stability, and scalability for perovskite photovoltaic applications.
The traditional reliance on fullerene-based ETLs in tin perovskite solar cells hinges on their ability to facilitate efficient electron extraction and transport, effectively boosting the cell’s overall power conversion efficiency. Despite these benefits, fullerenes are plagued by a range of issues that have slowed the commercial viability of tin-based perovskites. Their synthesis is laborious and expensive, involving several purification steps that raise production costs. More critically, the intrinsic electron mobility of fullerene materials is often insufficient to meet the demands of rapidly developing large-area solar modules. Furthermore, fullerenes interact with the perovskite absorbers in a manner that can cause spatial non-uniformities, ultimately limiting device reliability and lifespan. These limitations have inspired a rigorous search for materials that can emulate fullerene’s conductive properties without inheriting their drawbacks.
Enter the novel class of fluorinated triple-acceptor polymers, designed specifically to address these multifaceted challenges. The polymers, referred to as P1, P2, and P3 in the study, represent a new paradigm in ETL design. Unlike the rigid, spherical fullerenes, these polymers offer tremendous structural flexibility, enabling the formation of continuous and conformal interfaces with tin perovskite layers. This intimate interfacing is critical, as it ensures efficient electron extraction and suppresses non-radiative recombination pathways, which are detrimental to overall device performance. Remarkably, these polymers possess higher intrinsic electron mobilities, a property that dramatically enhances charge transport dynamics within the device architecture.
Among the polymers investigated, P3 stands out due to its optimal energy-level alignment with the corresponding tin perovskite absorbers. This alignment is crucial because it facilitates more efficient electron transfer processes, minimizing energy losses that typically hamper solar cell performance. The study reports that solar devices utilizing P3 as the ETL achieved power conversion efficiencies of 16.06% on small-area cells (0.04 cm²) and 14.67% on larger-area (1 cm²) cells. Notably, these figures have been independently certified at 15.90% and 14.51%, respectively, showcasing reliable performance metrics that are competitive with or even surpass those obtained using traditional fullerene-based layers.
The move away from fullerene architectures toward polymeric ETLs like P3 is more than a marginal improvement; it fundamentally changes the scalability landscape of tin perovskite solar cells. One of the enduring hurdles in perovskite research has been the challenge of uniformly covering large substrates without sacrificing device efficiency or longevity. Polymer ETLs inherently facilitate better morphological control, enabling the formation of uniform layers across centimeter-scale substrates. This capacity for scaling up holds the promise to bridge the gap between laboratory-scale experimentation and industrial-level production, bringing tin-based photovoltaics closer to widespread commercialization.
A critical aspect of solar cell viability beyond initial efficiency is long-term operational stability. Tin-based perovskites, in particular, have been susceptible to degradation triggered by ambient moisture, oxygen, and continuous illumination. The new polymers incorporate long-alkyl side chains and fluorine substituents, imparting significant hydrophobicity to the ETL surface. This hydrophobic nature effectively repels moisture infiltration while simultaneously mitigating chemical degradation pathways. As a result, devices featuring P3 retained over 85% of their initial efficiency even after 550 hours of continuous exposure to 1-sun illumination—a remarkable demonstration of durability that elevates the material’s prospects for real-world applications.
Beyond performance and stability, the cost and environmental impact of materials remain pivotal considerations in next-generation solar technology development. The fluorinated triple-acceptor polymers introduced here benefit from comparatively straightforward synthesis routes relative to the complex, multistep processes associated with fullerene preparation. This simplicity translates into reduced production costs and less environmental waste, offering a sustainable pathway to scale up manufacturing without compromising device function. These attributes make the polymers especially attractive for tackling one of the most pressing industry demands: affordable and eco-friendly solar solutions.
The implications of employing non-fullerene ETLs ripple through various facets of materials science and device engineering. For instance, the strong and uniform interaction between polymer ETLs and tin perovskite layers helps suppress defects and trap states at the interface, phenomena notorious for hampering efficiency and accelerating degradation. Additionally, this strong interfacial coupling enables greater control over electronic properties, which could lead to further fine-tuning of device architectures and the integration of complementary functionalities such as tandem cell stacking or flexible substrates.
Researchers also underscore the potential versatility of these polymers beyond just tin-based perovskites. Given their tunable chemical structures and energy levels, similar fluorinated triple-acceptor polymers might be adapted to interface effectively with lead-halide perovskites or other emerging photovoltaic materials. This adaptability could broaden the scope of high-performance, stable, and scalable solar cells accessible through this innovative material platform.
The study’s achievement of certified efficiencies at practical device sizes is particularly noteworthy in light of historical challenges in tin perovskite research. While lead-based perovskites have dominated efficiency records, tin alternatives have lagged due to intrinsic instability and suboptimal interfaces. This research knocks down one of the principal barriers—efficient electron transport and interface engineering—demonstrating that tin perovskites can rival their lead counterparts in both efficiency and stability when paired with the right transport layers.
In conclusion, the pioneering work presented in this study elucidates a clear pathway for the evolution of tin-based perovskite photovoltaics. Through the elegant design and implementation of fluorinated triple-acceptor polymer ETLs, these devices achieve superior electron transport properties, better energy alignment, enhanced durability, and scalable fabrication. The breakthrough lays an important foundation for ongoing efforts to develop cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and commercially viable solar energy solutions employing non-toxic tin perovskites. It also signals a critical shift in material design philosophy, highlighting the power of polymer chemistry to overcome longstanding limitations in perovskite solar cell technology.
As the photovoltaic research community digests these findings, future investigations will likely focus on optimizing polymer synthesis, exploring new polymer-family analogs, and integrating these ETLs into advanced device architectures. The promising balance of performance, stability, and manufacturability exemplified by P3 and its counterparts could redefine how tin perovskite solar cells are conceived, manufactured, and deployed. Such material innovations are poised to accelerate the global transition toward sustainable energy with affordable, efficient, and scalable solar technologies.
Ultimately, this work marks a pivotal contribution to the field of next-generation photovoltaics, bridging gaps between academic innovation and industrial application. It not only expands the material toolbox available for energy conversion technologies but also charts a future where fullerene-free, polymer-based ETLs become standard bearers for high-performance tin perovskite solar cells. Through this advancement, the scientific community edges closer to unlocking the full potential of perovskite materials as a cornerstone of renewable energy infrastructure worldwide.
Subject of Research: Advancement of non-fullerene electron transport layers in tin-based perovskite solar cells to improve efficiency, stability, and scalability.
Article Title: Centimetre-scale fullerene-free tin-based perovskite solar cells with a 14.51% certified efficiency.
Article References:
Li, T., He, F., Shen, T. et al. Centimetre-scale fullerene-free tin-based perovskite solar cells with a 14.51% certified efficiency. Nat Energy (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-025-01919-1
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