In recent years, extremism and religious extremism have emerged as critical areas of concern, shaping public discourse, policy-making, and academic inquiry worldwide. The intricate nature of extremism—ranging from ideological rigidity to violent manifestations—poses significant challenges for societies striving to maintain order, justice, and inclusivity. A groundbreaking systematic literature review (SLR) conducted by Ismail, Jamir Singh, and Mujani (2025) rigorously examines these phenomena, offering fresh insights into their definitional complexities and societal impacts. This comprehensive analysis is pivotal in understanding how extremist ideologies form, evolve, and disrupt social cohesion, particularly in increasingly pluralistic and polarized global contexts.
At its core, extremism is conceptualized as a multifaceted spectrum of ideologies and behaviors distinguished by extreme rigidities in belief systems and a pronounced intolerance for dissenting perspectives. These characteristics often escalate to behaviors that contravene accepted social norms and ethical standards, frequently culminating in actions that threaten communal harmony and public safety. However, the definitional boundaries of extremism remain notoriously ambiguous in academic and legislative arenas, a disparity that further exacerbates challenges in effectively categorizing and combating such movements.
Distinct from the broad category of extremism, religious extremism occupies a specific niche whereby religious doctrines or identities are manipulated to justify hate, exclusivity, and even violence. This subset demands unique attention due to its capacity to exploit deeply personal and collective faith-based convictions, thereby intensifying polarizations and exacerbating societal fracture lines. The reviewed literature meticulously unpacks these dimensions, exposing how extremist religious ideologies often converge with political or social grievances, thereby entrenching active conflict cycles.
Central to the understanding of extremism are the intertwined elements of belief and behavior. Beliefs underpin the cognitive frameworks through which individuals interpret reality, shaping not only worldview but also subsequent actions. Extremist beliefs—marked by an unyielding allegiance to specific cause narratives and a rejection of pluralistic dialogue—manifest behaviorally through strategies ranging from social withdrawal to overt acts of aggression. This fundamental nexus highlights the critical imperative of addressing ideological roots alongside observable conduct in any intervention or prevention strategy.
Of particular note is the identification of intellectual extremism, an emergent form of rigidity frequently observed within higher education environments. This variant reflects the pernicious consequences of dogmatic adherence to particular ideologies, often curtailing critical inquiry and fostering intellectual silos. University campuses, intended as bastions of open discourse and knowledge proliferation, thus become battlegrounds where extremism undermines the foundational pillars of academic and social development. This insight propels the necessity for renewed pedagogical strategies that nurture dialectical engagement and critical thought.
Aside from the psychological and social dimensions, the review highlights significant legislative complexities. Frameworks such as the United Kingdom’s Prevent Duty illustrate attempts to address extremism preemptively, primarily by targeting radicalization pathways. While well-intentioned, these policies draw criticism for their broad and sometimes vague definitions of extremism, raising concerns about overreach, stigmatization of minority groups, and human rights infringements. The intricate balancing act between national security and civil liberties remains a focal point in policy debates, necessitating nuanced, evidence-based approaches.
This ambivalence in definition and application underscores a broader need articulated by the review’s authors: fostering robust dialogue among scholars, policymakers, and communities alike. Such multi-stakeholder collaboration is essential for constructing definitions of extremism and religious extremism that are both contextually sensitive and theoretically sound. Without this pluralistic engagement, efforts risk perpetuating simplistic labels or reactive measures that inadequately address root causes or diverse experiences.
Education emerges prominently as a frontline defense against extremism. Beyond conventional content delivery, education must aim to cultivate critical thinking, empathy, and democratic values—foundations that resist the allure of absolutism and censorship. Social reforms that prioritize inclusion, equity, and dialogue further strengthen societal resilience, attenuating the grievances and exclusionary sentiments that often drive extremist recruitment and radicalization.
The global scale of extremism requires similarly global perspectives. While manifestations of extremism are locally nuanced, transnational networks, digital platforms, and ideological contagion ensure that no society is insulated from their ripple effects. Thus, international cooperation and knowledge exchange are indispensable, particularly in sharing best practices and harmonizing preventative frameworks that adapt to evolving threats while safeguarding human rights.
Moreover, the review underscores the importance of methodological rigor in extremism research. By systematically evaluating empirical studies and theoretical discourses, it highlights how clarity in operational definitions directly influences the reliability and comparability of findings. Researchers must therefore prioritize precision in defining extremism parameters, delineating between ideological beliefs, behaviors, and structural factors, to build robust evidence bases for intervention design.
Importantly, this SLR calls attention to the intersectionality embedded within extremism studies. Factors such as socioeconomic status, identity politics, historical grievances, and cultural dynamics all intersect with extremist tendencies, shaping distinct trajectories and expressions. Recognizing such complexity is crucial for tailoring policies and programs that resonate authentically with affected populations rather than imposing reductive frameworks.
The psycho-social mechanisms propelling extremist adherence, including identity insecurity, cognitive closure, and social alienation, receive focused discussion. These psychological dimensions elucidate why individuals gravitate toward rigid beliefs and exclusionary group memberships, providing a roadmap for mental health and community support initiatives integral to deradicalization efforts. Understanding these internal dynamics better equips society with tools to preempt extremist entrenchment.
Technological advancements, notably the pervasive influence of social media algorithms and encrypted communication platforms, have transformed extremism’s operational landscape. The ability to rapidly disseminate propaganda, coordinate activities, and foment polarization online amplifies the urgency of adaptive regulatory and educational responses. This digital dimension is a contemporary battleground demanding innovative interdisciplinary cooperation between technologists, sociologists, and policymakers.
In synthesizing these varied threads, the authors assert a compelling vision for confronting extremism holistically. They advocate for policies and interventions founded on empirical evidence, human rights-led frameworks, and sustained community engagement. This integrated approach contends that peace and stability are not passive states but require active labor across educational, social, and legal domains to dismantle extremism’s appeal and empower resilient societies.
Ultimately, this landmark review delivers a nuanced, far-reaching discourse pivotal for academics, practitioners, and the public alike. It reveals that extremism’s complexity resists simplistic labeling or unilateral action, instead inviting continuous reflection and collective effort. By advancing clarity in definition and fostering inclusive preventive strategies, the path toward mitigating extremism and religious extremism grows clearer—promising more peaceful, enlightened futures worldwide.
Subject of Research:
The research systematically explores the multifaceted definitions and conceptualizations of extremism and religious extremism, analyzing scholarly debates, legislative frameworks, and behavioral manifestations to better understand their social, psychological, and political dimensions.
Article Title:
A systematic review: unveiling the complexity of definitions in extremism and religious extremism
Article References:
Ismail, A.M., Jamir Singh, P.S. & Mujani, W.K. A systematic review: unveiling the complexity of definitions in extremism and religious extremism.
Humanit Soc Sci Commun 12, 1297 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05685-z
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