In Japan, religious identity and practice present a fascinating and complex landscape that defies simple categorization. Each New Year, millions flock to Shinto shrines to pray for good luck, while summer months see many engaging in Buddhist rites to honor their ancestors. Such ritualistic behaviors, deeply ingrained in cultural tradition, might appear undeniably religious from an outsider’s stance. However, a significant portion of those participating in these activities would identify themselves as nonreligious or even atheists. This paradox reflects a uniquely Japanese approach to spirituality, shaped by centuries of syncretism between Shinto, Buddhism, and indigenous folk practices.
The concept of religion, or “shūkyō” in Japanese, usually conjures images of structured institutions and clear membership affiliations, as is common in Western religious traditions. Yet, in Japan, religious expression rarely coincides with formal institutional belonging or doctrinal belief. This cultural dissonance has long posed challenges for social scientists attempting to measure religiosity using conventional Western frameworks. Standard survey methods typically equate religiosity with explicit affiliation, consistent belief systems, and regular participation in religious activities—a model that inadequately captures the fluid, layered religious reality in Japan.
A groundbreaking study conducted by Assistant Professor Koki Shimizu of Doshisha University and Professor Yoshihide Sakurai of Hokkaido University rigorously investigates this gap. Utilizing a nationally representative sample of over 4,000 Japanese respondents as part of the 2024 Global East Survey of Religion and Spirituality, this research delves into the intersections of identity, practice, and belief. The survey’s innovative design allowed participants to select multiple religious identities and addressed belief and ritual participation independently, avoiding assumptions that these elements must align.
Their analysis exposed a rich tapestry of plural religiosity. While more than 40% of respondents labeled themselves as nonreligious or atheists, many within this group actively participated in rituals such as shrine visits or ancestral ceremonies. Equally intriguing was the widespread overlapping identification with both Buddhist and Shinto traditions, revealing that dual or multiple religious affiliations are normative, not exceptional, in Japan. This multifaceted affiliation stands in sharp contrast to Western concepts of exclusive religious belonging.
Belief systems among the Japanese population also demonstrate substantial heterogeneity. Many respondents expressed beliefs that do not fit neatly within orthodox conceptions of gods or the afterlife, underscoring the culturally embedded nature of their spirituality. Dr. Shimizu emphasizes that religiosity in Japan is less about formal membership or uniform beliefs and more about inherited customs, social practices, and communal participation. These elements blur the boundaries between religion and culture, rendering religion a lived, often implicit experience rather than a codified ideology.
The study’s findings carry critical methodological implications for social science research. The authors highlight how subtle semantic variations in survey wording—such as asking whether an individual “believes in” a religion versus “has” a religion—can yield drastically different measures of religiosity. Such nuances can cause estimates of religious or nonreligious populations to fluctuate widely, complicating cross-cultural comparisons. This insight calls for more flexible frameworks and culturally sensitive instruments to accurately capture the diverse manifestations of religiosity worldwide.
Beyond academic circles, this nuanced view of Japanese religiosity challenges stereotypical portrayals of Japan as a secular society. Instead, it reveals a form of spirituality deeply woven into everyday life and social customs, even among those who eschew formal religious identities. Recognizing this complexity has practical significance for intercultural dialogue, educational discourse, and media representation, promoting a richer understanding that transcends simplistic binaries of religious versus nonreligious.
The research also contributes to theoretical debates about what it means to be religious in a globalized era marked by pluralism and hybridity. It suggests that identity, belief, and practice can diverge significantly and that religiosity should be conceptualized as a multidimensional phenomenon. This perspective opens avenues for studying other non-Western contexts where religion functions as an embedded cultural process rather than a distinct institutional framework.
Moreover, this study underscores the potential for empirical research to bridge gaps between qualitative ethnographic insights and quantitative survey data. Prior ethnographies had indicated discrepancies between ritual engagement and religious self-identification in Japan, but this research provides robust statistical validation from a large, representative population. The fusion of ethnographic sensitivity with rigorous data analysis exemplifies an innovative methodological approach to exploring complex social phenomena.
In conclusion, this study reframes Japanese religiosity not as an absence or decline of religion but as a plural, layered, and culturally rooted mode of spiritual life. It calls for a reconsideration of survey design and analytical lenses in global studies of religion, emphasizing cultural context and flexible definitions. As secularization narratives face increasing challenges worldwide, studies like this illuminate the diverse ways humans engage with existential meaning, communal memory, and tradition.
By exposing the ambiguous boundaries of belief, behavior, and belonging, the work of Shimizu and Sakurai invites both academics and the public to embrace a broader, more inclusive understanding of religion. Their findings serve as a reminder that religious life cannot be neatly boxed into fixed categories but must be appreciated as a dynamic interplay of identity, ritual, and belief—shaped by history, culture, and evolving social norms.
Subject of Research: People
Article Title: Ambiguous Boundaries of Religious Belief, Behavior, and Belonging in Japan: A Descriptive Analysis of Plural and Cultural Religiosity
News Publication Date: 12-Apr-2026
Web References: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jssr.70065
Image Credits: Assistant Professor Koki Shimizu from Doshisha University, Japan
Keywords: Religion, Cultural practices, Spirituality, Sociology, Society
