In the intricate landscape of child and adolescent development, the interplay between environmental stressors and cognitive growth has long captivated researchers. A groundbreaking systematic review published in BMC Psychiatry sheds new light on the nuanced roles that parenting behaviors play in shaping executive functions amidst psychosocial adversity. This comprehensive review, emerging from a synthesis of 21 studies, reveals that parenting is more than a backdrop; it is a potent mediator and potential buffer in the cognitive outcomes of young individuals facing various adversities.
Executive functions—the high-level cognitive processes that include working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility—are foundational to a child’s ability to navigate complex tasks, regulate emotions, and succeed academically. Adverse psychosocial conditions, such as low socioeconomic status (SES), household chaos, intimate partner violence, and maternal depression, have been consistently linked to impairments in these crucial cognitive processes. However, the mechanisms by which these adversities manifest in altered executive functioning have remained elusive, with parenting emerging as a critical intervening factor.
The review synthesized findings from research predominantly conducted in North America, with 18 studies from the USA and Canada and three from other global locations. A striking consistency emerged: parenting behaviors, both supportive and unsupportive, partially explain the relationship between environmental adversity and executive function development. This mediation effect occurs because caregiving approaches directly influence the child’s capacity to process, adapt to, and overcome stress-induced cognitive challenges.
Supportive parenting behaviors, characterized by sensitivity, warmth, and developmental attunement, appear to scaffold neural pathways vital for executive functioning. These behaviors were found to partly counteract the neurological and psychological detriments wrought by adverse environments. Conversely, non-supportive parenting—marked by neglect, harshness, or emotional unavailability—intensifies vulnerability to cognitive deficits, compounding the effects of already challenging social conditions.
Delving deeper, four of the reviewed studies explored the moderating capacity of parenting—specifically, whether certain caregiving styles might shield children from the full brunt of adversity-related cognitive disruptions. Two studies illuminated a protective effect of developmentally supportive parenting, such as maternal sensitivity, which seemed to buffer children against the deleterious impact of low SES on executive functions. These findings suggest that the family environment can serve as a cognitive refuge, tempering the neurodevelopmental risks associated with socioeconomic deprivation.
Understanding the mediating and moderating influences of parenting opens promising avenues for intervention. By enhancing parenting strategies and providing resources to promote supportive caregiving, it may be possible to mitigate the adverse effects of psychosocial stressors on executive function trajectories. Such interventions would not only improve cognitive outcomes but also bolster resilience against the psychological harm inflicted by adverse early experiences.
However, the review also highlights significant gaps in the existing literature. The paucity of research conducted outside Western contexts limits the generalizability of findings, underscoring the urgency for cross-cultural studies. Given the vast differences in social support systems, cultural norms of parenting, and the nature of adversity across countries, diversified research could uncover unique mechanisms or adaptive factors influencing executive functions globally.
Methodologically, the reviewed studies utilized a variety of executive function measures and parenting assessments, a heterogeneity that complicates synthesis but also reflects the multifaceted nature of both constructs. Future research might benefit from standardized protocols and longitudinal designs, enabling clearer causal inferences about how parenting behaviors evolve and interact with adversity over developmental timeframes.
The neurobiological underpinnings of these relationships merit further exploration. Emerging evidence implicates stress-related alterations in prefrontal cortex development as a mediator between adversity and executive dysfunction. Parenting practices might modulate this neuroplasticity through systems linked to stress regulation, such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, suggesting exciting possibilities for integrative biopsychosocial models.
Moreover, the timing of interventions could be crucial. Sensitive periods for executive function development coincide with windows where parenting can profoundly shape neural circuits. Understanding these periods better could refine early childhood policies and therapeutic programs, creating optimized strategies to buffer against adversity’s impact.
Public health implications are profound. As policymakers contend with ubiquitous socioeconomic inequalities, this body of evidence advocates for family-centered approaches. By strengthening parenting capacities through education, social supports, and mental health services, societies might effectively harness a natural protective mechanism against cognitive and developmental disparities.
Ultimately, this review advances the narrative beyond viewing adversity’s impact on child cognition as deterministic and immutable. Instead, it positions parenting as a dynamic agent capable of both risk and resilience modulation. This paradigm shift fosters hope and guides scientific endeavors toward designing interventions that empower families, protect children, and nurture brain development under challenging circumstances.
The work from Cardoso, Martins, Venturin, and colleagues thus marks a significant milestone, charting a path forward for multifactorial research and integrative public health strategies. As the global community grapples with rising psychosocial challenges, their findings underscore the vital role caregivers play in securing cognitive futures for children worldwide.
In light of these insights, the scientific and clinical communities must prioritize developing culturally sensitive, evidence-based parenting programs and policies. Doing so could transform the landscape of childhood neurodevelopmental outcomes, forging resilience where adversity once seemed insurmountable.
This systematic review not only enriches our understanding of child and adolescent development amid adversity but also calls to action researchers, clinicians, and policymakers alike. As the field advances, embracing the dual roles of parenting in both mediating and moderating cognitive outcomes will be essential to crafting effective interventions tailored to the needs of diverse populations and varied psychosocial milieus.
Subject of Research: The mediating and moderating roles of parenting behaviors in the relationship between psychosocial adversity and executive functions in children and adolescents.
Article Title: Psychosocial adversity and executive functions in children and adolescents: a systematic review of mediating and moderating influences of parenting behaviors.
Article References: Cardoso, A.S., Martins, R.C., Venturin, B. et al. Psychosocial adversity and executive functions in children and adolescents: a systematic review of mediating and moderating influences of parenting behaviors. BMC Psychiatry 25, 894 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06592-y
Image Credits: AI Generated
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06592-y
Keywords: Executive functions, psychosocial adversity, parenting behaviors, mediation, moderation, child development, socioeconomic status, maternal sensitivity, cognitive resilience, developmental neuroscience
