The intricate crosstalk between the immune system and metabolic tissues has long fascinated researchers, especially given the profound impact infections have on systemic physiology. One enigmatic phenomenon observed yet poorly understood is the loss of adipose tissue following viral infection, a process that has remained an obscure aspect of host-pathogen interactions. Recent groundbreaking research has begun to untangle this mystery, revealing a dynamic and adaptive interaction between immune effectors and fat stores that serves to enhance antiviral immunity.
Visceral adipose tissue, a major fat depot deeply embedded around internal organs, is not merely a passive energy reservoir but an active immunometabolic organ. Upon viral invasion, this tissue undergoes a transient but significant reduction in fat content, effectively mobilizing energy substrates into the circulatory system. This reduction in adiposity is orchestrated at the cellular level through a finely tuned immune-metabolic axis involving natural killer (NK) cells, their cytokine IFNγ, and subsequent alterations in adipocyte function.
NK cells are among the earliest responders in viral infections, swiftly recognizing infected cells and producing inflammatory cytokines, notably interferon-gamma (IFNγ). The new study reveals that during the initial phases of infection, adipose tissue increases the expression of activating ligands on its cellular surface that engage NK cell receptors. This interaction stimulates NK cells to ramp up secretion of IFNγ locally within adipose depots, thereby linking immune recognition directly to adipocyte metabolic reprogramming.
IFNγ, classically known for its role in antiviral immunity and macrophage activation, here exerts a pivotal metabolic function. It acts on adipocytes to pivot their lipid metabolism away from fat creation (lipogenesis) towards fat breakdown (lipolysis). This shift causes adipocytes to release stored lipids—principally free fatty acids—into the bloodstream. The liberated free fatty acids, particularly oleic acid, represent crucial metabolic substrates whose signaling capacities extend beyond mere energy provision.
Crucially, the study identifies oleic acid as a key modulator of early B cell activation following viral exposure. B cells, essential components of the adaptive immune response, require metabolic reprogramming to meet the bioenergetic and biosynthetic demands of activation and proliferation. Oleic acid fuels oxidative phosphorylation within these cells, enhancing mitochondrial activity and metabolic fitness, which is indispensable for robust immune function.
This enhanced mitochondrial metabolism coincides with increased expression of co-stimulatory molecules, specifically the B7 family proteins, on the surface of B cells. These molecules are fundamental for efficient antigen presentation and for providing the second signal required to fully activate CD8+ T cells. The study thereby links the metabolic state of B cells directly to their capacity to prime cytotoxic T lymphocytes—key players in viral clearance.
Interfering with lipid uptake in activated B cells critically impairs this process. Experimental inhibition of fatty acid assimilation diminishes B cell co-stimulatory function, resulting in suboptimal CD8+ T cell activation and a consequent increase in viral replication within the host. These results highlight the importance of lipid metabolism not only as a fuel source but as a pivotal regulator of immune cell function during infection.
The discovery of this immunometabolic feedback loop offers a paradigm shift in understanding how adipose tissue contributes to antiviral defenses beyond its traditional role as an energy depot. It reveals a previously unappreciated mechanism whereby NK cell-derived IFNγ coordinates lipid mobilization to metabolically support and potentiate early adaptive immune responses.
This finding has broad implications, especially given the global prevalence of viral diseases and the increasing recognition of metabolic health’s influence on immune competence. It suggests that targeting metabolic pathways or modulating lipid availability could represent novel strategies to enhance vaccine efficacy or antiviral therapy, particularly in individuals with metabolic dysfunction.
Moreover, the spatial and temporal dynamics of immune cell interactions with adipose tissue during infection provide new vistas for studying inflammatory processes. Understanding how adipose tissue serves as a nexus between systemic metabolism and immunity opens avenues for exploring chronic inflammatory diseases, where dysregulation of similar pathways may contribute to pathogenesis.
Importantly, this research challenges the conventional notion that fat loss during illness is merely a byproduct of systemic inflammation or anorexia. Instead, it positions adipose tissue remodeling as an active, immune-driven process essential for optimal mounting and shaping of antiviral immunity, marking a sophisticated form of metabolic adaptation to infectious stress.
Future investigations will likely delve deeper into the molecular signals governing ligand expression on adipocytes and NK cells, and how these pathways are integrated with other metabolic and immune signals during diverse infections. Additionally, unraveling whether similar mechanisms operate during bacterial or parasitic infections, or in chronic viral conditions, could broaden the therapeutic relevance of these findings.
This study underscores the necessity to consider immune metabolism holistically rather than focusing solely on classical immune pathways. The interplay between fat-derived metabolites and immune cell activation may also intersect with other physiological states such as aging, obesity, or malnutrition, factors known to influence susceptibility to viral diseases.
Ultimately, these insights enrich our understanding of host defense mechanisms, illustrating how the immune system harnesses metabolic resources from adipose tissue to flexibly meet the energetic and functional demands of antiviral immunity. This metabolic crosstalk between innate and adaptive immune cells underscores a sophisticated system of resource allocation optimized through evolutionary pressures to ensure survival.
By elucidating how NK cell-derived IFNγ induces adipose tissue to release free fatty acids that then fuel early B cell activation, this research provides a compelling example of the bidirectional communication that sustains immune competence. It highlights adipose tissue not only as an energy bank but as a dynamic participant in immunity, reshaping our conception of metabolism during infection.
The coordination of lipid mobilization, immune activation, and pathogen control exemplifies an elegant integration of physiology and immunology. Harnessing such knowledge offers promising avenues for the development of immunometabolic therapies that exploit endogenous mechanisms to bolster antiviral defenses, potentially transforming approaches to infectious disease management.
In sum, this research delineates a novel immunometabolic circuit fundamental to the host response during viral infection. It redefines adipose tissue as a critical immune organ in the context of infection and underscores the centrality of IFNγ as a mediator connecting innate immune sensing to metabolic and adaptive immune activation. This discovery opens exciting new chapters in our understanding of immune regulation and metabolic adaptation under infectious stress.
—
Subject of Research: Immune system-mediated regulation of adipose tissue metabolism and its role in promoting early B cell activation during viral infection.
Article Title: NK cell-derived IFNγ mobilizes free fatty acids from adipose tissue to promote early B cell activation during viral infection.
Article References:
Krapić, M., Kavazović, I., Mikašinović, S. et al. NK cell-derived IFNγ mobilizes free fatty acids from adipose tissue to promote early B cell activation during viral infection.
Nat Metab (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-025-01273-2
Image Credits: AI Generated
