Transposable elements (TEs), once dismissed as mere genomic “junk,” have emerged as critical drivers of genome function and human health. These mobile genetic elements, which constitute nearly half of the human genome, encompass a diverse array of sequences originating from ancient retroviruses and functional RNAs. Far from being inert passengers, TEs actively shape genomic architecture and regulatory networks, influencing development, disease, and aging. Recent comprehensive reviews—such as the one led by Dr. Nian Liu at Tsinghua University—shine new light on the intricate molecular biology underlying TE activity and repression, highlighting their dualistic roles as both genomic custodians and agents of pathology.
At the molecular level, TEs are broadly classified into two major classes based on transposition mechanisms: Class I elements, known as retrotransposons, transpose via an RNA intermediate; Class II elements, or DNA transposons, mobilize through DNA excision and reintegration. Among retrotransposons, long interspersed nuclear elements (LINE-1, or L1), Alu elements, SVA sequences, and endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) dominate the landscape. Notably, L1 remains the only autonomous active TE in humans, encoding the proteins ORF1p and ORF2p essential for retrotransposition. Alu and SVA elements lack autonomous capability and rely on L1’s enzymatic machinery for their mobilization. While most DNA transposons have decayed into inactivity, certain retrotransposons persistently impact genome stability and function.
The human genome employs a multilayered regulatory apparatus to maintain TE repression, essential for genomic integrity. This includes DNA methylation and histone modifications such as H3K9me3, which condense chromatin into transcriptionally silent regions. Central to this is the KRAB zinc finger proteins (KRAB-ZFP) and their cofactor KAP1, which recruit the histone methyltransferase SETDB1 to deposit repressive marks at young L1 and ERV loci. Additionally, components of the RNA interference pathway, including piRNAs and siRNAs, target TE transcripts for degradation, while post-transcriptional RNA modifications like m6A and m5C influence TE RNA metabolism. Despite these robust defenses, mutations in TE promoter regions or deletions in their 5’ untranslated regions (UTRs) enable some elements to evade silencing and persistently express, potentially disrupting host genomic stability.
Functionally, TEs exert influence beyond mere genomic parasites; they are embedded within gene regulatory networks. Their sequences can donate alternative exons, act as enhancers, and drive alternative promoter usage. L1s and ERVs contribute to the higher-order chromatin structure by participating in the formation of chromatin compartments and topologically associating domains (TADs), foundational units of 3D genome organization. Certain TEs, such as L1 and the human endogenous retrovirus HERVH, serve as stage-specific enhancers during zygotic genome activation (ZGA) and pluripotency maintenance in embryonic stem cells. Furthermore, L1 RNAs have been identified to scaffold chromatin modifiers in trans, modulating gene accessibility and expression in a dynamic manner.
TE activity is intricately linked with developmental processes. During embryogenesis, especially at the ZGA phase, transient activation of TEs provides regulatory elements essential for genome reprogramming. Placental development also relies heavily on TE-derived sequences, with families like MER50 and RLTR13 contributing specific enhancers and alternative promoters modulating placental gene networks. In neural development, L1 and Alu elements facilitate processes such as neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity by influencing gene expression and genomic diversification. Conversely, aberrant TE activation in the nervous system has been implicated in a spectrum of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders, including schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders, Rett syndrome, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and Alzheimer’s disease, where insertional mutagenesis and TE-induced inflammation drive neuropathology.
The immune system also interfaces with TEs in complex ways. TE-derived nucleic acids, such as double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) or complementary DNA (cDNA) intermediates, are recognized by innate immune sensors including RIG-I, cGAS, and Toll-like receptors (TLRs), triggering antiviral responses. Some ERVs and L1 elements are inducible by interferons and act as enhancers of immune-related genes, modulating T cell differentiation and activity. Dysregulated TE expression may contribute to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis by perpetuating chronic inflammation and dysregulated immune surveillance.
Aging presents another crucial context wherein TE regulation deteriorates. The epigenetic landscapes that maintain TE silencing erode with age, resulting in reactivation of otherwise quiescent elements. L1 expression in aged tissues correlates with increased DNA damage, cellular senescence, and a pro-inflammatory phenotype termed “inflammaging.” Emerging therapeutic strategies are exploring the use of reverse transcriptase inhibitors (e.g., lamivudine/3TC) to mitigate TE-driven age-related inflammation and genomic instability, opening a novel frontier in anti-aging medicine.
In oncology, TEs are reactivated in over half of human tumors, with notable prevalence in colorectal and esophageal cancers. L1 insertions contribute directly to oncogenesis by disrupting tumor suppressor genes such as APC and PTEN. The resulting genomic instability from TE-mediated copy number variations further fuels tumor heterogeneity and evolution. Importantly, TE-derived transcripts and translated peptides create neoantigens unique to tumor cells, presenting novel targets for cancer immunotherapy. Therapeutic approaches leveraging epigenetic drugs to “unmask” these antigens (such as DNA methyltransferase and histone deacetylase inhibitors) significantly enhance tumor immunogenicity and improve responses to checkpoint blockade therapies. Moreover, innovative vaccine and CAR-T cell strategies targeting TE-derived neoepitopes are under active development.
From a diagnostic perspective, TE activity offers promise as sensitive biomarkers. Circulating cell-free DNA containing TE sequences, as well as TE RNA in cerebrospinal fluid, enable early detection and monitoring of cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Technological advances such as single-cell sequencing and long-read methodologies facilitate high-resolution mapping of TE activity at cell-specific levels, revolutionizing our ability to diagnose and treat diseases with TE involvement. Computational approaches, including machine learning models, are increasingly capable of predicting immunogenic TE-derived epitopes, potentially guiding personalized immunotherapy design.
Looking forward, integrating TE profiling with broader epigenomic and transcriptomic data will deepen our understanding of TE functional dynamics in health and disease. By elucidating specific TE signatures linked to distinct pathological contexts, researchers can develop more precise, personalized interventions that modulate TE activity. This emerging paradigm reframes TEs from genomic threats into therapeutic targets and diagnostic tools, heralding a new era in genomics-driven medicine with broad implications for human health.
Subject of Research: Human tissue samples
Article Title: Transposable elements in health and disease: Molecular basis and clinical implications
News Publication Date: 20-Sep-2025
Web References: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CM9.0000000000003775
Image Credits: Dr. Nian Liu, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, China
Keywords: Transposable elements, Genetic material, DNA, Molecular genetics, Clinical medicine, Genetic regulation, Disease, Immune response, Aging, Cancer, Neurodevelopment
