In a groundbreaking exploration into the neural circuits underlying stress-induced metabolic regulation, researchers have unveiled an intricate communication pathway between the amygdala and the hypothalamus that orchestrates glycaemic responses. This study delves deep into the medial amygdala (MeA), a brain region historically recognized for its role in emotional processing, revealing its complex contribution to blood glucose control through projections to the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH). Employing advanced spatial transcriptomics alongside viral tracing and chemogenetics, the investigators dissected the cellular composition and function of MeA neurons targeting the VMH, unearthing new dimensions of brain-liver signaling in stress physiology.
The research hinged upon cutting-edge spatial transcriptomic technology, specifically the Xenium platform by 10X Genomics, which allowed for high-resolution gene expression profiling of thousands of cells within coronal sections of the MeA. The authors prepared tissue slices spanning the range from −0.7 mm to −2.06 mm posterior to the bregma in murine brains, tagging VMH-projecting neurons with a retrograde fluorescent label via AAVretro-hSyn-mCherry injections into the VMH. This enabled precise mapping and phenotyping of the MeA neurons that interface directly with this hypothalamic nucleus, a pivotal hub in energy and endocrine homeostasis.
Clustering analyses of over 21,600 MeA cells revealed 15 distinct cellular populations encompassing both neuronal and non-neuronal types. Within the neurons, unsupervised re-clustering isolated 20 discrete neural clusters, unveiling heterogeneity in neurotransmitter identity and topographic distribution. Notably, a major GABAergic population expressing Vgat (Slc32a1) dominated, identified distinctly through uniform manifold approximation and projection (UMAP), contrasting with three separate groups of glutamatergic neurons each characterized by exclusive expression of Vglut1 (Slc17a7), Vglut2 (Slc17a6), or co-expression of both. These excitatory neurons displayed a striking ventral MeA localization, segregated along the anterior-posterior axis, with Vglut2 concentrated anteriorly and Vglut1 posteriorly, while inhibitory neurons predominantly occupied the dorsal MeA.
Importantly, the distribution of stress-induced immediate early gene expression (FOS) spanned both dorsal and ventral MeA regions, indicating that stress activates a broad spectrum of excitatory and inhibitory MeA neurons. This finding underscored the functional relevance of discrete neurotransmitter populations in the MeA’s overall response to stress stimuli, suggesting multilayered regulatory mechanisms at play in neural circuits controlling systemic glucose dynamics.
Integration of transcriptomic data with retrograde fluorescent labeling pinpointed 305 VMH-projecting MeA neurons, which were predominately glutamatergic, composing approximately 74% of this projection pool. These neurons were mostly concentrated in clusters enriched for Vglut2+ neurons (clusters 3 and 4), as well as those expressing Vglut1 and mixed Vglut1/2. Intriguingly, a subset of GABAergic neurons (cluster 11) also contributed to this projection, highlighting a dual excitatory-inhibitory input from the MeA to the VMH. Differential gene expression analyses revealed that these VMH-projecting neurons express unique gene signatures associated with metabolic and glycaemic regulation, which also intersect with human genetic loci linked to type 2 diabetes and body weight regulation.
To validate the anatomical connectivity suggested by transcriptomics, the team employed Cre-dependent viral tracing using synaptophysin-mCherry in genetically defined mouse lines expressing Cre recombinase in glutamatergic (Vglut2-cre) or GABAergic (Vgat-cre) neurons. Synaptophysin, a presynaptic vesicle protein, allowed visualization of axonal terminals emanating from MeA neurons. Robust labeling was observed in the VMH from both genetically targeted populations, conclusively demonstrating that excitatory and inhibitory MeA neurons send direct projections to this hypothalamic nucleus, establishing a dual-modality output channel to this critical metabolic center.
Functional interrogation of these identified circuits using chemogenetics further solidified their physiological impact. Activation of MeA glutamatergic neurons via CamK2a-driven hM3DGq receptor expression, as well as the stimulation of GABAergic neurons using a Dlx promoter-driven hM3DGq receptor system, both resulted in significant elevations of blood glucose following clozapine-N-oxide (CNO) administration. Control animals expressing mCherry alone did not exhibit these changes, underscoring the causal role of MeA neuronal activity in modulating systemic glucose levels during stress. These findings illuminate a bidirectional control mechanism in which both excitation and inhibition from the MeA shape hypothalamic output to peripheral metabolic organs.
The molecular profile of VMH-projecting MeA neurons also opens avenues for understanding the genetics of metabolic disorders. By integrating Human Genetic Evidence (HuGE) scores associated with glycaemic traits, the authors linked gene expression patterns within these cells to allelic variants influencing glucose homeostasis and diabetes risk. This convergence of transcriptomic and genetic data highlights the MeAVMH neuronal phenotype as a critical node for potential therapeutic targeting in stress-related metabolic dysfunction.
Collectively, this comprehensive study redefines the medial amygdala beyond its classical role in emotional behavior, positioning it as a nuanced integrator of neural circuits governing glucose regulation during stress. The discovery of mixed glutamatergic and GABAergic projections to the VMH, coupled with their functional validation, underscores an elegant interplay between excitatory and inhibitory signaling in the brain’s control over peripheral metabolism. These insights pave the way for deeper investigations into how emotional and metabolic states coalesce at the level of discrete neural ensembles.
Moreover, this research exemplifies the power of spatial transcriptomics combined with viral circuit tracing and chemogenetics to unravel complex brain-body communication pathways. The ability to profile gene expression in situ with single-cell resolution, alongside pinpointing functional connectivity, allows for unprecedented dissection of neural circuits that coordinate systemic physiological responses. It heralds a new era in neuroscience focused on connecting genomic determinants with behavioral and metabolic phenotypes.
The implications for understanding stress-related disorders, including diabetes and obesity, are profound. Stress is a well-known precipitant of hyperglycaemia and metabolic dysregulation, yet the precise neurobiological substrates have remained elusive. This study’s identification of a specific amygdala-to-hypothalamus projection that modulates blood glucose reveals potential targets for intervention that could decouple harmful metabolic sequelae from stress exposure.
In future directions, deciphering the downstream targets and signaling cascades within the hypothalamus and peripheral organs influenced by these MeA neurons will be critical. Additionally, exploring how chronic stress or pathological conditions alter this circuit’s function and gene expression profiles may shed light on mechanisms driving metabolic disease progression. The integration of multi-omics approaches with in vivo functional studies promises to further expand our understanding of brain-metabolism crosstalk.
In summary, the meticulous characterization of MeAVMH neurons as heterogeneous populations of glutamatergic and GABAergic cells projecting to the VMH, together with their demonstrable influence on blood glucose during stress, represents a seminal advance in neuroendocrinology. These findings unravel a vital neural pathway that links emotion-processing centers with metabolic control, enhancing our grasp of how the brain orchestrates complex physiological adaptations to stress.
Subject of Research: Neural circuits connecting the medial amygdala to the ventromedial hypothalamus and their role in regulating stress-induced blood glucose responses.
Article Title: Amygdala–liver signalling orchestrates glycaemic responses to stress.
Article References:
Carty, J.R.E., Devarakonda, K., O’Connor, R.M. et al. Amygdala–liver signalling orchestrates glycaemic responses to stress. Nature (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09420-1
