In an ambitious multinational study exploring the intricate relationship between teachers’ technology use and educational outcomes, researchers from seven diverse European countries have shed new light on how digital integration varies within different pedagogical frameworks. The investigation, encompassing Austria, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia, and Turkey, highlights the nuanced ways technology is embedded in classrooms, emphasizing the critical role of teachers’ career stages and national digital readiness.
The participating nations offer a compelling contrast in technological development, ranging from the highly advanced infrastructures of Austria and Slovenia to countries like Montenegro and Turkey, where digitalization in education still faces considerable challenges. This variance allowed the research team to examine how country-specific technological ecosystems influence teachers’ adoption of digital tools, offering a rare cross-national perspective on educational technology integration.
The study relied on a voluntary participation model, gathering data from 2,277 teachers after an initial sample of nearly 3,000. Data collection was meticulously carried out over three months through emails sent to school principals, who then disseminated online surveys to their teaching staff. This method ensured anonymity and ethical protection, with a rigorous focus on voluntary engagement and meticulous handling of personally identifiable information.
Teachers were segmented into career stages ranging from novices (0–5 years) to seasoned veterans (over 20 years), reflecting an evolving professional trajectory that correlates with their openness to technological innovation. The research posits that earlier career teachers typically display a stronger inclination toward adopting innovative teaching methods and digital tools, whereas those with two decades or more of experience may hold fast to traditional pedagogical strategies.
The ICAP framework—categorizing learning into passive, active, constructive, and interactive modes—serves as the theoretical foundation for this study. Utilizing a 12-item scale specifically designed to measure teachers’ technology integration across these learning modes, researchers were able to quantify the frequency and quality of digital interactions in educational settings. The ICAP-TS instrument, validated in previous studies, provided robust reliability metrics, reinforcing the validity of the findings.
Translation and localization of the survey instrument stood out as a key strength of the study. Translations were carried out by the researchers and refined by professional linguistic experts in each country, followed by pilot testing with local educators to ensure clarity and cultural relevance. This rigorous adaptation process guaranteed that data collected in multilingual contexts remained consistent and comparable.
The researchers employed Covariance-Based Structural Equation Modeling (CBSEM) using MPLUS 8 software to analyze the data rigorously. This advanced statistical approach allowed the team to model latent variables—underlying constructs such as each ICAP learning mode—and explore the complex relationships between them. The method is well-suited to handling multiple observed variables and testing theoretical constructs simultaneously, making it ideal for the multifaceted nature of technology integration research.
Critical to the robustness of the results was the use of the Maximum Likelihood estimation method in face of non-normally distributed data. This approach mitigated potential biases and inaccuracies, ensuring parameter estimates remained valid despite deviations from ideal statistical assumptions. Multiple model fit indices, including Chi-Square, RMSEA, CFI, and TLI, collectively confirmed the adequacy of the chosen structural equation model.
One of the study’s most compelling contributions lies in its exploration of moderation effects—how factors like teaching experience influence the dynamics between different ICAP learning modes. The findings suggest that as teachers gain experience, their integration of technology evolves, potentially shifting from more passive or active uses toward interactive and constructive modes that foster deeper student engagement.
Moreover, the research underscores that country-level digital infrastructure plays a significant role in shaping technology adoption patterns. Teachers in nations with higher ICT Development Index rankings, such as Austria and Slovenia, demonstrate more frequent and sophisticated use of digital tools aligned with advanced ICAP modes, compared to their counterparts in countries with less developed digital ecosystems.
The implications of these findings resonate beyond academic curiosity, offering actionable insights for policymakers and education stakeholders. Tailored professional development programs that consider teacher career stages can enhance technology uptake, while investments in national digital infrastructure are essential to create enabling environments for meaningful technology integration.
Methodologically, the use of the FIML (Full Information Maximum Likelihood) approach to handle missing data further bolstered the quality of the analysis, ensuring that survey responses with minor gaps did not skew the results. The large sample size also gave the study ample statistical power, significantly exceeding minimum requirements for confidence and margin of error.
The study’s international scope and rigorous data collection methods contribute valuable empirical evidence to ongoing debates about digital transformation in education. By systematically linking ICT readiness with pedagogical innovation measured through the ICAP framework, the research paves the way for more nuanced understandings of how technology can enhance student learning across varied contexts.
Teachers’ attitudes toward technology integration, particularly during the formative stages of their careers, emerged as a focal point. The findings reinforce earlier research that early- and mid-career educators are key to pioneering and sustaining technology-driven educational reforms, given their greater flexibility and openness to change.
Equally important is the study’s emphasis on collaborative learning modes involving technology—represented in the ICAP model’s interactive category. This mode, involving active cooperation among students, is increasingly relevant in digitally connected classrooms and aligns with global trends emphasizing collaboration and critical thinking skills.
The thorough validation procedures for the survey instrument, including expert reviews and pilot testing across multiple languages, set a high benchmark for similar multinational studies. This attention to methodological detail assures stakeholders of the reliability and cultural relevance of the conclusions drawn.
In conclusion, this multinational research offers a comprehensive analysis of technology integration in education through the lens of the ICAP framework and career-stage moderation. It convincingly illustrates how digital readiness at the national level and professional development trajectories intersect to influence the adoption of technology-enabled pedagogies. These insights can guide future educational policy and practice toward fostering more adaptive, interactive, and digitally enriched learning environments worldwide.
Subject of Research:
The study investigates teachers’ technology integration within different ICAP learning modes across seven European countries, examining how career stages and national digital infrastructures moderate these practices.
Article Title:
Relations between teachers’ technology integration within ICAP modes with moderation effects: international perspective
Article References:
Anđić, B., Maričić, M., Soeharto, S. et al. Relations between teachers’ technology integration within ICAP modes with moderation effects: international perspective. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 12, 1701 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05960-z
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