Conventional wastewater treatment plants were never designed to strip out recalcitrant organic micropollutants such as pharmaceuticals, and trace amounts routinely slip through into receiving waters. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) attack these stubborn compounds by generating highly reactive free radicals that fragment contaminant molecules. But chemical degradation alone does not guarantee safety. As contaminants break down, they spawn transformation products (TPs) that can, in some cases, be as toxic as—or more toxic than—the parent compounds. The research team, led by Lucas Gustavo da Costa and Alam Gustavo Trovó of the Federal University of Uberlândia, together with collaborators at the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, set out to answer a deceptively simple question: does measurable chemical removal of micropollutants actually translate into reduced biological harm?

The centerpiece of their work is the H₂O₂/S₂O₈²⁻/UVC process, a hybrid system that combines hydrogen peroxide and persulfate with short-wave ultraviolet C radiation. UVC photons cleave both oxidants simultaneously, generating hydroxyl radicals (HO•) and sulfate radicals (SO₄•⁻) in the same reaction volume. This dual-radical strategy outperforms systems relying on either oxidant alone, or on peroxymonosulfate (HSO₅⁻), which is costlier and demands more energy for activation. The hybrid route also resists interference from inorganic species commonly found in real effluents, making it an economically attractive candidate for deployment at full-scale treatment plants. The process had already been chemically optimized in the team’s earlier work using multivariate mixture design and rotatable central composite design experiments; the new study is its first integrated biological stress test.

The experiments used real municipal effluent from a wastewater treatment plant in Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, sampled after the plant’s final tertiary treatment stage of coagulation-flocculation with ferric chloride and flotation. The effluent was enriched with three pharmaceuticals representing different therapeutic classes: colchicine (COL, an antimitotic agent), nitazoxanide (NTZ, an antiparasitic), and sulfamethoxazole (SMX, a widely detected antibiotic), each at 325 nmol L⁻¹—equivalent to 130, 100, and 82 micrograms per liter, respectively. That concentration was deliberately chosen as high enough for direct HPLC–DAD analysis without preconcentration, yet low enough to be environmentally representative. Treatment was carried out in an amber glass reactor irradiated by two 8-watt UVC mercury lamps emitting at 254 nm, with a measured irradiance of 4.9 W m⁻². Residual oxidants were neutralized with sodium thiosulfate before any biological testing, ensuring that observed effects could not be attributed to leftover peroxide chemistry.

The ecotoxicological battery spanned multiple trophic levels and levels of biological organization. Oxidative stress was assessed in the earthworm Eisenia andrei by measuring malondialdehyde (MDA), a marker of lipid peroxidation, and protein carbonylation, an irreversible oxidative modification of proteins. Phytotoxicity was evaluated using lettuce (Lactuca sativa) seeds and a growth index combining germination rate and root elongation. Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity were quantified in onion (Allium cepa) root meristems through the mitotic index and the frequency of chromosomal and nuclear aberrations—micronuclei, chromosome breaks, stickiness, bridges, and nuclear buds—across 5,000 cells per sample. Finally, growth inhibition was tested in two environmentally relevant microbes: Azospirillum brasilense, a plant growth-promoting bacterium used in soybean cultivation, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a yeast that persists in soils and fermentative niches.

The untreated enriched effluent told a worrying story. It exhibited substantial genotoxicity in onion cells—21%, approaching the 24% seen with the positive control, methyl methanesulfonate—and severe phytotoxicity, with lettuce growth indices far below the 80% threshold that signals absence of toxicity. Even the unspiked effluent itself suppressed lettuce growth, achieving a growth index of only 47%, evidence that bioactive compounds survive conventional treatment. In earthworms, individual aqueous solutions of NTZ and SMX raised MDA levels by 37.2% and 23.5% respectively, while the three-compound mixture increased lipid peroxidation by 38.0%, pointing to additive or synergistic oxidative stress mechanisms involving reactive oxygen species and Fenton-type chemistry within cells.

The picture changed decisively after oxidation. Following 10 minutes of UVC-driven treatment—the point at which 80% chemical degradation had been achieved, matching the minimum removal target proposed in the European Union’s COM(2022)541 directive—genotoxicity fell to 10%, and after 20 minutes, corresponding to the limit of quantification for the parent compounds, it dropped further to 6%, a statistically significant reduction. The plant growth index climbed above 80%, crossing from toxic territory into biocompatibility. The mitotic index in onion cells remained statistically indistinguishable from the deionized-water control (around 39–40% versus 40%), demonstrating that the process generated no cytotoxic byproducts capable of arresting cell division. And crucially for agricultural applications, neither the treated effluent nor its transformation products inhibited growth of A. brasilense or S. cerevisiae.

The mechanistic details are instructive. In the untreated enriched effluent, micronuclei—membrane-bound DNA fragments expelled from the nucleus during flawed cell division—were among the most frequent aberrations, indicating clastogenic and aneugenic damage. Colchicine exposure predictably produced C-metaphase accumulation, a signature of its tubulin-binding, spindle-disrupting mechanism first described in Allium nearly a century ago. SMX depressed the mitotic index and induced chromosomal damage, consistent with prior findings in Vicia faba. NTZ, whose genotoxicity had never before been reported, produced chromosome breaks, stickiness, and nuclear buds. After oxidation, the overall aberration burden fell sharply, particularly micronuclei and stickiness, although a few bridges and polyploid cells persisted even at 20 minutes—a reminder that some transformation products or resistant residuals may linger.

The microbial results came with a subtlety. Reduced A. brasilense growth after treatment initially looked like a red flag, but the team attributes it to depletion of assimilable organic matter, which serves as radical scavenger during oxidation and as a nutrient source afterward—not to toxicity. The negative control likewise grew slowly. This distinction matters because AOPs are designed to mineralize organic carbon, and a nutrient-poorer medium should not be misread as a more toxic one. For S. cerevisiae, no inhibition occurred at any stage of treatment, although NTZ alone significantly depressed yeast optical density, reinforcing the compound’s cell-cycle interference potential even at nanomolar-scale exposures.

The study’s broader significance lies in its methodological stance. By adopting an “effect-driven approach,” the team evaluated the toxicity of whole reaction mixtures without needing to isolate and identify individual transformation products—an impractical task given that many degradation byproducts are not commercially available. Their findings align with a growing consensus that treatment efficacy must be judged not merely by parent-compound removal but by the nature and reactivity of the resulting transformation products. Biochemical biomarkers such as MDA and protein carbonylation detected sublethal disturbances that mortality-based endpoints would have missed entirely, providing early warnings of cellular distress at environmentally relevant concentrations.

One caveat deserves attention: while lipid peroxidation declined after treatment, protein carbonylation rose slightly—1.05-fold above control—suggesting some transformation products may still provoke protein oxidation even as lipid damage subsides. The authors flag this discrepancy and call for future identification of the specific TPs responsible, alongside expanded organism panels, longer-term exposure studies, and pilot-scale validation across different environmental matrices.

The regulatory context sharpens the urgency. The EU’s proposed urban wastewater treatment directive mandates at least 80% removal of specified organic micropollutants and microbiological control for agricultural reuse, yet it conspicuously omits eco-compatibility assessment of the treated water itself. This study supplies exactly that missing dimension, showing that a process satisfying the chemical benchmark also delivers measurable biological benefit—lower genotoxicity, restored plant growth, intact cell division, and unharmed beneficial microbes. As water scarcity intensifies globally and reuse becomes less optional, the Brazilian team’s integrated bioassay framework offers a template for ensuring that the water farmers irrigate with is not merely chemically compliant, but genuinely ecologically safe.

In a groundbreaking development, a team of researchers led by Dr. Jiafang Xie at the Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, has engineered a novel biochar-based catalyst derived from rice husks — an abundant agricultural byproduct — that demonstrates unprecedented efficacy in the rapid degradation of antibiotics under environmentally benign conditions. Their study, published in Biochar, reveals that the cobalt oxide-loaded biochar catalyst can instantaneously activate peroxymonosulfate to achieve complete breakdown of levofloxacin in merely four minutes at neutral pH, marking a transformative leap in wastewater treatment science.

The synthesis of this biochar catalyst, designated as RHBA800@25Co3O4, involved the meticulous preparation of oxygen-rich activated biochar from rice husk biomass followed by the strategic dispersion of cobalt oxide (Co3O4) nanoparticles across its porous matrix. This synergistic structural design produces a highly reactive and accessible catalytic surface, effectively combining the high surface area and functional group abundance of biochar with the potent oxidative capabilities of cobalt oxide nanostructures. This optimization paves the way for superior interaction with peroxymonosulfate, an oxidant known for its potential in advanced oxidation processes.

Performance assessments extended beyond controlled laboratory conditions to real-world aqueous environments, where the catalyst maintained remarkably high degradation efficiencies. Trials conducted in various water samples—ranging from lake and tap water to secondary effluent discharged from municipal sewage treatment plants—confirmed its robust activity and versatility. Furthermore, in a custom-designed fixed-bed reactor, the catalyst demonstrated sustained functionality over 72 consecutive hours, highlighting its stability and practicality for continuous flow water purification systems.

A central scientific breakthrough of this research lies in elucidating the elusive catalytic mechanism underpinning Co3O4-mediated peroxymonosulfate activation, a topic previously clouded in uncertainty. Employing a combination of sophisticated in situ Raman spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), and density functional theory (DFT) calculations, the investigators identified lattice oxygen within Co3O4 as a pivotal contributor to the generation of reactive intermediates. Notably, under reaction conditions, lattice oxygen induces formation of a novel surface species, Co3O4−α–OH, which exhibits stronger affinity for peroxymonosulfate molecules and facilitates accelerated electron transfer essential for rapid oxidative reactions.

This discovery not only unravels the crucial role of lattice oxygen chemistry in cobalt oxide catalysts but also resonates with the catalyst’s observed ultrafast kinetics. The biochar support enhances cobalt oxide dispersion and prevents nanoparticle aggregation, optimizing active site availability. Meanwhile, the transformation of lattice oxygen into hydroxylated intermediates intensifies catalytic efficiency by promoting quicker and more effective peroxymonosulfate activation through both radical and non-radical pathways, including the generation of sulfate radicals, hydroxyl radicals, and singlet oxygen species.

Importantly, the degradation process exhibited comprehensive antibiotic elimination with reduced toxicity in the resulting solution. Analytical examination of transformation products revealed that the byproducts formed possess significantly lower antimicrobial activity. Correspondingly, bacteriological tests employing Escherichia coli demonstrated that treated levofloxacin solutions lacked antibacterial inhibition zones compared to untreated samples. This validates the catalyst’s dual role in not only cleaving antibiotic molecules but also mitigating potential ecological hazards associated with harmful metabolites.

The implications of this research extend beyond immediate water purification applications, underscoring a sustainable and circular approach to environmental remediation. By valorizing agricultural residues like rice husk into high-performance catalytic materials, the study exemplifies the integration of waste management with advanced chemical technology. This aligns with global efforts to address pollution while fostering resource efficiency and environmental stewardship through biochar innovation.

Dr. Xie emphasizes that the fusion of agriculture-derived biochar and transitional metal oxides represents a promising frontier in catalysis, where material design and mechanistic insights coalesce to solve practical challenges. The precise identification of Co3O4−α–OH intermediates from lattice oxygen transformation not only advances fundamental knowledge but also guides future catalyst development for broader environmental and industrial applications requiring efficient oxidation chemistry.

Looking ahead, the research team envisions deploying this cobalt oxide biochar catalyst in larger-scale water treatment infrastructures to tackle widespread antibiotic contamination issues. The demonstrated durability and performance in mixed and complex water matrices suggest high feasibility for real-world implementation. This technological innovation paves the way for rapid, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly solutions to safeguard water quality and public health on a global scale.

Ultimately, this study heralds a new era where interdisciplinary research marries the principles of materials science, environmental engineering, and catalysis to combat the persistent pollutant load burdening aquatic systems. The remarkable speed and efficacy of the RHBA800@25Co3O4 catalyst in simultaneously activating peroxymonosulfate and degrading antibiotics redefines potential benchmarks for next-generation water treatment technologies, inviting further exploration and adaptation in the fight against pollution and antimicrobial resistance.

Subject of Research: Experimental study on the development and mechanistic analysis of cobalt oxide-loaded rice husk biochar catalyst for rapid antibiotic degradation in water.

Article Title: In situ observation of Co3O4−α–OH formation on optimized biochar for peroxymonosulfate activation and ultrafast antibiotics degradation

News Publication Date: 16 June 2026

Web References:
Journal Biochar: https://link.springer.com/journal/42773
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42773-026-00634-8

References:
Zhang, J., Xie, J., Zhu, S. et al. In situ observation of Co3O4−α–OH formation on optimized biochar for peroxymonosulfate activation and ultrafast antibiotics degradation. Biochar 8, 113 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42773-026-00634-8

Image Credits: Jian Zhang, Jiafang Xie, Shuhui Zhu, Jiacheng E. Yang, Bo Weng & Yuming Zheng

Keywords

Biochar, cobalt oxide, Co3O4−α–OH, antibiotic degradation, peroxymonosulfate activation, wastewater treatment, advanced oxidation processes, levofloxacin, rice husk catalyst, environmental remediation, antimicrobial resistance, catalytic mechanism

The prevalence of antibiotics like enrofloxacin and amoxicillin in natural water bodies stems from their extensive utilization in human healthcare and veterinary applications. Because these compounds resist conventional degradation pathways, they accumulate in wastewater streams, posing ecological risks and fostering antibiotic resistance. Traditional treatment methods, including standalone ultrasound applications, often suffer from inefficiencies and high operational energy demands, limiting their practical viability. Recognizing these challenges, researchers focused on optimizing the catalytic environment that can intensify ultrasound-assisted degradation processes under mild and energy-efficient conditions.

At the heart of this technological leap is a composite synergistically integrating biochar, carbon nanotubes, and iron carbide (Fe3C). This complex architecture marries the unique properties of each constituent—biochar’s porous structure and hydrophobicity, the exceptional electrical conductivity and mechanical strength of carbon nanotubes, and the catalytic potential of iron carbide—to promote robust cavitation phenomena under low-frequency ultrasound excitation. The biochar matrix not only provides mechanical stability but also serves as an effective platform facilitating cavitation bubble nucleation and stability, a critical factor in enhancing ultrasound-mediated pollutant breakdown.

Ultrasound-induced cavitation involves the generation, oscillation, and violent collapse of microbubbles in aqueous media, producing localized hot spots characterized by extreme temperatures and pressures. These microenvironments catalyze the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anions, renowned for their potent oxidizing capability in decomposing organic contaminants. However, conventional ultrasound treatment at low frequencies often suffers from suboptimal bubble dynamics and limited ROS generation. The introduction of the biochar-based composite material addresses these limitations by enhancing bubble formation and persistence at the catalytic surface, thus magnifying cavitation intensity and reaction efficacy.

The carbon nanotubes embedded within the composite play a multifaceted role. Their high surface area and excellent electron transfer properties facilitate the generation and stabilization of reactive species. Simultaneously, the iron carbide nanoparticles act as catalytic active sites, promoting Fenton-like reactions that synergistically increase ROS production. The interplay of these nanoscale phenomena results in a pronounced acceleration of antibiotic degradation pathways, surpassing the removal rates achievable by ultrasound or adsorption alone.

Quantitative assessments demonstrated that this novel system enhanced antibiotic removal rates up to 15-fold relative to conventional biochar or ultrasound treatments. Remarkably, the composite achieved over 90% degradation of enrofloxacin and amoxicillin within a few hours under low-frequency ultrasound, all while operating at a fraction of the energy expenditure required by traditional methods. This substantial energy efficiency stems from the composite’s ability to optimize cavitation dynamics, reducing the need for high ultrasonic power input.

The antibiotic removal mechanism was elucidated as a dual-stage process. Initially, antibiotics are adsorbed onto the composite surface through hydrophobic interactions and molecular binding, leveraging the biochar’s porous and chemically active surface. Subsequently, reactive oxygen species generated during bubble collapse chemically degrade the adsorbed molecules into less harmful substances. This combined adsorption-degradation framework ensures a more comprehensive elimination of antibiotic residues, minimizing the potential for pollutant rebound or incomplete treatment.

Moreover, the researchers observed a sustained synergistic interaction between the composite and ultrasound over prolonged operational cycles. The material improves cavitation bubble nucleation and enhances surface reactivity, while continuous ultrasonic agitation prevents the fouling and passivation of active sites, maintaining catalytic efficiency. This dynamic interaction is crucial for the long-term viability of the technology in real-world wastewater treatment applications, where treatment units are expected to operate under fluctuating environmental conditions.

Robustness tests across variable pH regimes and multiple reuse cycles confirmed the composite’s operational stability and regenerative capacity. When subjected to complex real water matrices containing various ions and organic matter, the system retained high antibiotic removal efficiencies with only marginal performance declines. These attributes underscore the composite’s potential for scalable deployment in diverse environmental settings, including municipal wastewater treatment plants, agricultural runoff remediation, and industrial effluent management.

Importantly, this approach aligns with sustainable environmental engineering principles. By utilizing low-frequency ultrasound and a reusable carbon-based catalyst, the system dramatically reduces operational costs and the carbon footprint associated with conventional high-energy treatment processes. The biochar’s origin from biomass feedstocks also adds an element of circular economy, reinforcing the composite’s eco-friendly credentials.

The implications extend beyond antibiotic remediation. The fundamental insights gained into controlling cavitation processes via engineered carbon nanomaterials open avenues for tackling a broad spectrum of persistent organic pollutants. This platform technology may be adapted to address contaminants such as pesticides, dyes, and pharmaceuticals, potentially transforming wastewater treatment landscapes globally.

This innovative research exemplifies the convergence of nanotechnology, materials science, and environmental engineering to address one of the pressing challenges of our times. By harnessing the synergy of biochar-enhanced cavitation and low-frequency ultrasound, the study provides a scalable, energy-efficient, and sustainable solution for mitigating antibiotic pollution and safeguarding water quality for future generations. The work paves the way for further exploration into tailored nanocomposites engineered for environmental remediation, marking a significant advancement in the quest for cleaner and safer water resources.

Subject of Research: Experimental study on enhanced antibiotic removal from water using biochar-carbon nanotube-Fe3C composite under low-frequency ultrasound.

Article Title: Sustainable removals of antibiotics via biochar-enhanced ultrasound cavitation effect: synergy of carbon nanotube bonded biochar@Fe3C composite and low frequency energy efficiency.

News Publication Date: 9-Feb-2026.

Web References:
– Journal: Biochar (https://link.springer.com/journal/42773)
– Article DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42773-025-00551-2

References:
Wang, A., Zhao, N., He, L. et al. Sustainable removals of antibiotics via biochar-enhanced ultrasound cavitation effect: synergy of carbon nanotube bonded biochar@Fe3C composite and low frequency energy efficiency. Biochar 8, 46 (2026).

Image Credits: Ao Wang, Nan Zhao, Lei He, Ye Xiao, Chuanfang Zhao, Siyuan Guo, Xiang Liu, Weihua Zhang, Kunyuan Liu & Rongliang Qiu.

Keywords

Antibiotics, biochar, carbon nanotubes, iron carbide, ultrasound cavitation, water treatment, antibiotic resistance, environmental remediation, reactive oxygen species, low-frequency ultrasound, nanocomposites, sustainable technology.

The phenomenon known as anammox plays a pivotal role in the nitrogen cycle, significantly reducing the amount of nitrogen compounds that are often harmful when released into aquatic ecosystems. Anammox bacteria possess the unique ability to convert ammonium into nitrogen gas anaerobically, offering a sustainable solution for nitrogen removal from wastewater. In the backdrop of increasing urbanization and industrial discharges that lead to heightened COD levels in wastewater, the study’s findings could not come at a more crucial time. The researchers not only delve into the methodology of this enrichment but also emphasize the broader ecological implications associated with the effective management of nitrogen in wastewater streams.

The research methodology employed by Zhu and colleagues is particularly innovative, involving controlled applications of electrical voltage to mixed cultures containing diverse microbial populations. By applying voltage, researchers aimed to selectively enrich anammox bacteria while simultaneously inhibiting the growth of competing microorganisms. This selective enrichment could lead to more effective bioprocesses for wastewater treatment, providing insights into how bioelectrochemical systems can improve microbial performance. The application of electricity as a biostimulatory agent opens new avenues for engineering microbial communities capable of enhancing nitrogen removal efficiencies amid complex wastewater matrices.

Understanding how COD levels impact microbial communities is crucial. High COD concentrations often inhibit the growth of beneficial microorganisms, leading to decreased effectiveness in treatment processes. The voltage application revealed in the study aims to bolster the resilience and dominance of anammox bacteria even in challenging conditions where COD levels are significantly high. By ensuring that these specialized bacteria thrive, wastewater treatment facilities could potentially see a marked improvement in nitrogen removal rates, thus reducing environmental nitrogen load and promoting a healthier ecosystem.

The research also sheds light on the potential economic benefits. Traditional wastewater treatment approaches can be both resource-intensive and costly. By integrating voltage application to enrich anammox populations, facilities might reduce the need for extensive aeration processes, resulting in lower operational costs. In a world where water scarcity is becoming an increasingly urgent issue, this efficiency could also contribute to promoting water reuse practices, converting treated wastewater into a valuable resource rather than a byproduct to be discarded.

The implications of Zhu and co-authors’ findings extend beyond mere laboratory outcomes. The environmental impacts of untreated wastewater discharge are profound, as elevated nitrogen levels can lead to eutrophication in water bodies, resulting in harmful algal blooms that devastate aquatic biodiversity and compromise water quality. By ensuring that treatment methods evolve to meet the challenges posed by pollution, this research aligns with global sustainability goals, aiming to maintain biodiversity while supporting human activities.

Moreover, the integration of technology within biological systems such as this raises critical questions about the future of environmental engineering. As electrical stimulation becomes more commonplace in biotechnological applications, the study invites a reconsideration of how we approach microbial management. Will electrical methods become a mainstay in bioremediation practices? Can we expect advancements in this area to lead to real-time monitoring and optimization of microbial activities in wastewater systems? The scope of inquiry is vast and ripe for exploration.

The research also emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration in tackling complex environmental problems. The intersection of microbiology, engineering, and environmental science is evident in the approaches taken by the researchers. It exemplifies how findings in one field can catalyze innovations in another, encouraging scientists to broaden their horizons and explore integrative solutions. The innovative application of voltage not only serves to enrich microbial cultures but could also inspire future studies aimed at maximizing the performance of other beneficial microbial processes.

In light of the compelling results demonstrated in this study, it is crucial to consider the subsequent steps. The scalability of voltage application in real-world wastewater treatment facilities remains an area requiring further investigation. While laboratory results are promising, the operational challenges posed by larger systems demand thorough assessment. Issues related to energy input, cost-effectiveness, and the long-term stability of enriched microbial populations are paramount to ensure that this innovation can be feasibly implemented across varied treatment contexts.

As we look to the future, the role of scientific inquiry in addressing environmental crises will be more vital than ever. Initiatives aiming to develop and refine methodologies like the application of electrical voltage could pave the way for smarter, more efficient wastewater treatment solutions that prioritize ecological integrity. These inquiries not only reflect a commitment to scientific advancement but also embody the optimism needed to address some of today’s most pressing environmental challenges.

In summary, Zhu, Chang, and Li’s research contributes significantly to our understanding of wastewater treatment processes and the dynamics of microbial communities. By applying voltage to enrich anammox bacteria, the study ultimately demonstrates a promising avenue for improving nitrogen removal efficiencies in wastewater. As environmental sustainability becomes an increasingly urgent priority, innovations like these could hold the key to fostering resilient ecosystems and sustainable practices. Embracing such methodologies could leave a profound legacy for future generations who will inherit the growing complexities of environmental management.

Moving forward, stakeholders in the environmental management field would be wise to keep a close eye on this promising approach. Whether policymakers, engineers, or researchers, the implications of this study resonate across multiple domains, revealing interconnected solutions to the environmental dilemmas we face. As science continuously evolves, the fusion of biological processes and technological advancements, as exemplified in this work, may soon redefine the landscape of wastewater treatment forever.

Subject of Research: Wastewater Management and Microbial Enrichment

Article Title: Application of voltage to enrich anaerobic ammonium-oxidizing bacteria from mixed cultures for the degradation of actual wastewater containing COD

Article References: Zhu, Y., Chang, Z., Li, Z. et al. Application of voltage to enrich anaerobic ammonium-oxidizing bacteria from mixed cultures for the degradation of actual wastewater containing COD. Environ Monit Assess 197, 1336 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-025-14680-5

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-025-14680-5

Keywords: Wastewater Treatment, Anaerobic Ammonium-Oxidizing Bacteria, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Bioelectrochemical Systems, Environmental Sustainability.