The scale of the issue stems from the sheer diversity of dye chemistry. Textile dyes are classified into broad families, including azo dyes built around nitrogen-nitrogen double bonds, anthraquinone dyes, indigoid dyes, and reactive, direct, disperse, acid, basic, vat, and sulfur classes defined by how they attach to fibers. Azo dyes dominate the market and dominate the concern, because under reducing conditions the azo linkage can cleave to release aromatic amines, some of which are carcinogenic or mutagenic. Surveys of clothing on the Swiss market have identified hazardous, non-regulated aromatic amines as cleavage products of azo dyes, and screening of garments sold in Brazil and Spain has confirmed human exposure to regulated aromatic amines through ordinary wear. The very tinctorial properties that make dyes valuable, their intense color at tiny concentrations, also mean that even minute discharges visibly pollute water and block light penetration, disrupting photosynthesis in aquatic systems far from the factory gate.

Environmental contamination follows multiple pathways. Dye-laden effluents discharged into rivers alter water color, reduce dissolved oxygen, and impair aquatic flora and fauna. Studies on freshwater microalgae such as Spirulina platensis show that dyes like methylene blue suppress growth and metabolism, while Congo red affects organisms across trophic levels, from microalgae and cladocerans to zebrafish embryos. Fish are particularly vulnerable: juvenile tilapia exposed to indigo dye show sub-lethal toxicity, and zebrafish embryo assays reveal that dyes such as Maxilon Blue 5G and Reactive Blue 203 cause acute toxicity and DNA damage during development, with some dyes producing teratogenic effects and biochemical and immunohistochemical changes. There is even evidence of bioaccumulation in the wild: toxic textile dyes have been detected accumulating in European eels caught in natural waters, demonstrating that these compounds move through food webs rather than remaining inert contaminants.

Soil and air are not spared. Textile effluents applied to or leaked into land degrade soil microbial communities, and experiments with the dye Red-S3B showed measurable harm to soil microbial activity and wheat yield, effects that could only be partially alleviated by organic amendments. Genotoxicity assessments of soils contaminated by textile waste confirm that dye residues can damage genetic material in soil organisms. Sludge from textile dyeing plants contains aromatic amines whose distribution and concentrations have been mapped in risk assessments across multiple Chinese facilities, and long-term printing and dyeing sludge landfills have been flagged in weighted comprehensive risk analyses. Even the air indoors matters: emissions from textile products contribute to indoor air quality concerns, and combustion of biological sludge from dyeing effluent treatment plants raises air pollution questions of its own. The review underscores that dye pollution is not a single-medium problem but a persistent, multi-compartment contamination.

For human health, the most direct route of exposure is the skin. Textile dye dermatitis has been documented for decades, with disperse dyes, used widely on polyester, identified as significant contact allergens. Patch testing has long been part of diagnosing these allergies, and clinical reviews describe allergic contact dermatitis arising from dyed fabrics as a current and ongoing clinical issue. Beyond the skin, the cleavage of azo dyes into aromatic amines creates systemic risk, and recent work has identified dye intermediates such as N-phenyl-2-naphthylamine and o-tolidine as novel environmental androgens with reproductive toxicity in male rats. Systematic evidence mapping efforts are now cataloguing the available hazard data for market-relevant azo dyes, and researchers have proposed priority control lists for azo dyes based on human health risk, ecotoxicity, and degradation product profiles. Regulatory frameworks, including the European Union’s REACH regulation and Commission Regulation No 552/2009, restrict certain azo dyes and other hazardous colorants, and voluntary standards such as Oeko-Tex Standard 100 push manufacturers toward safer chemistry, but the review stresses that many hazardous dyes remain outside regulation.

Measuring toxicity is itself a technical challenge, and the review devotes attention to the test systems used to judge whether a dye or its breakdown products are dangerous. Classical acute toxicity measures such as the LD50 remain in use for hazard communication, though their limitations are widely acknowledged. Modern ecotoxicology relies on batteries of biotests spanning multiple trophic levels: acute and chronic assays with the water flea Daphnia magna and the alga Raphidocelis subcapitata, zebrafish embryo models for developmental and genotoxic endpoints, human keratinocyte cell lines for dermal relevance, and phytotoxicity assays using seed germination and plant growth. In silico approaches, including molecular docking and computational toxicity prediction, increasingly complement laboratory work by screening enzyme-dye interactions and predicting metabolite hazards before experiments are run. The consistent lesson from the literature is that decolorization alone is not enough; a treated effluent can look clean while its metabolites remain toxic, so toxicity assessment must accompany every treatment claim.

That insight drives the review’s comparison of elimination technologies, which fall into three broad categories: physical, chemical, and biological. Adsorption remains the workhorse of physical treatment, and the past few years have produced a remarkable array of sorbent materials, from activated carbons derived from bio-based waste and water hyacinth to fly ash, Moringa seed waste, ostrich eggshell, graphene exfoliated from industrial graphite waste, chitosan polymers cross-linked with pillararenes, and magnetic nanoadsorbents engineered for high capacity and recyclability. Membrane processes, including nanofiltration and biomimetic porous membranes with sub-nanometer channel regulation, can both remove dyes and, in ceramic membrane systems, recover dyes and salts for reuse. Coagulation exploits molecular structure to aggregate direct dyes, and electrocoagulation, often integrated with electrochemical oxidation, adsorption, or nanofiltration, has been optimized through statistical designs to treat real textile effluents with recycled electrodes.

Chemical degradation aims higher than removal: the goal is mineralization, the complete conversion of dye molecules into carbon dioxide, water, and inorganic ions. Advanced oxidation processes dominate this space. Fenton and Fenton-like chemistry, which generate hydroxyl radicals from hydrogen peroxide catalyzed by iron, has been extended to heterogeneous catalysts, hydrochar bio-based catalysts, nickel converter slag, and even single-atom catalysts whose size-dependent activity is a frontier of materials chemistry. Photocatalysis has exploded as a research area, with semiconductor nanoparticles of zinc oxide, tin dioxide, titanium dioxide doped with terbium, copper ferrite composites on montmorillonite, carbon dots bound to palladium-ceria on zeolite, and g-C3N4 biochar composites activated by persulfate all demonstrating dye degradation under UV or visible light. Ozonation, plasma-generated ozone and nitric oxide, and electrochemical peroxidation round out the oxidative toolkit. Critically, recent studies pair these treatments with cytotoxicity and ecotoxicity assessments of the by-products, because incomplete oxidation can leave intermediates that are as hazardous as the starting dye.

Biological approaches offer the appeal of low cost and environmental compatibility, and the microbial world has proven remarkably resourceful at dismantling dye structures. Bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus firmus, Bacillus cohni, Ochrobactrum intermedium, Serratia marcescens, and Providencia stuartii degrade azo, anthraquinone, and cationic dyes, with transcriptome profiling revealing upregulation of benzoate degradation pathways during the process. Fungi are equally important: white-rot fungi such as Trametes hirsuta, Trametes versicolor, and Pleurotus ostreatus secrete laccases and peroxidases that decolorize structurally diverse dyes, and immobilized fungal biomass and enzyme systems, including horseradish peroxidase on magnetic-carbon-polymer supports and cationic cellulose aerogels, extend enzyme lifetimes for repeated use. A newly characterized dye-decolorizing peroxidase from Brevibacillus agri has been applied directly to real textile wastewater, and a metal-dependent hydrolase named MdeH from Buttiauxella sp. cleaves Congo red with defined mechanism. Metagenomics is now being translated into bioremediation strategy, identifying dye-degrading communities tolerant of the extreme salinity and pH typical of textile effluents, while genetically modified microorganisms and plant-based systems, from hairy roots of Ipomoea carnea and sunflower to duckweed and constructed phytobeds, demonstrate in situ detoxification verified by non-target toxicity screening.

The review’s concluding message is one of urgency and integration. No single technology currently wins across all criteria of efficiency, cost, toxicity of residues, and scalability, and the most promising real-world solutions are hybrid ones: sequential electrocoagulation, oxidation, and adsorption trains; combined adsorptive-photocatalytic composites such as biochar-supported copper-doped tungsten trioxide valorized from water hyacinth; and enzyme-nanoparticle pairings that couple degradation with verified detoxification. Techno-economic assessments and life cycle analyses are increasingly part of the evaluation, ensuring that a laboratory triumph does not become an environmental liability at scale. Prevention matters as much as cure, and greener dyeing strategies, from supercritical carbon dioxide dyeing of polyester-cotton blends and cationic colored nanospheres for clean cotton dyeing to microbial prodigiosin pigments and ionic liquid-assisted processes, aim to reduce the hazard before effluent is ever created. What the accumulated evidence makes unmistakably clear is that the colorful chemistry of modern textiles demands an equally sophisticated chemistry of cleanup, and that finding the best solution for textile dye risk to environment and human health is no longer optional but urgent.

Subject of Research: Environmental and human health hazards of synthetic textile dyes and technologies for their degradation and elimination

Article Title: Environmental and human health hazard of textile synthetic dyes and some solutions for their elimination

Article References: Stanescu, M. D. (2026). Environmental and human health hazard of textile synthetic dyes and some solutions for their elimination. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 33(30), 15229-15252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-026-38198-6

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s11356-026-38198-6

Keywords: textile dyes, azo dyes, water pollution, aromatic amines, toxicity, wastewater treatment, photocatalysis, biodegradation, adsorption, advanced oxidation, ecotoxicology, human health