The study, led by researchers examining mountain socio-ecological systems in sub-Saharan Africa, collected data from 83 participants through 74 semi-structured interviews, two focus group discussions, and nine key informant interviews conducted between September and November 2025. Participants included rural household representatives, community leaders, and tourism stakeholders, providing perspectives from both subsistence-based and commercial livelihood pathways. The researchers grounded their analysis in three interrelated theoretical frameworks: environmental justice theory, which examines the fair distribution of environmental benefits and meaningful participation in decision-making; political ecology, which interrogates power relations and historical processes shaping resource access; and resilience thinking, which focuses on how communities absorb disturbances and adapt to changing conditions. Together, these lenses allowed the team to trace how governance processes influence access to ecosystem services, which in turn shapes livelihood strategies and adaptive outcomes under climate stress.

The Amathole Mountains were selected because they constitute a socio-ecological system where climate-sensitive ecosystem services such as water provision, forest resources, and soil fertility are directly linked to rural livelihoods, where unequal access to land continues to influence uneven resource distribution, and where governance arrangements are fragmented across stakeholders producing contested decision-making spaces. The Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality, where the study sites are located, is characterized by significant socio-economic disadvantage. Approximately 59 percent of residents in the broader Amathole District earn less than R1,600 per month, and unemployment reaches 42.8 percent. In Hopefield and Bold Point specifically, 65 percent of residents live below the upper-bound poverty line, with unemployment around 45 percent. Social grants remain the primary income source for many households, while limited employment opportunities increase reliance on natural resources for water, grazing, small-scale agriculture, and firewood.

Participants across all three study sites consistently reported that rainfall patterns have become increasingly unpredictable. Seasonal rains that previously arrived in early spring now occur irregularly or are delayed, resulting in shorter growing seasons and declining water availability. Streams and rivers that once flowed throughout the year now dry up earlier during the dry season. In Hopefield, drying rivers reduce soil moisture and limit irrigation for household gardens and small-scale farming, contributing to declining yields for staple crops such as maize, beans, spinach, cabbage, and potatoes. One female participant explained during a focus group discussion that the river often dries up because the rain does not come as before. Another young male participant highlighted the uncertainty that climate variability introduces into agricultural decision-making, noting that sometimes it rains too much and other times there is no rain at all, making farming difficult because households do not know when to plant. From a resilience perspective, this uncertainty itself emerged as a significant livelihood stressor because it undermines the ability to anticipate and respond effectively to environmental change.

In Bold Point, reduced rainfall has weakened streamflow and increased sedimentation, limiting the reliability of mountain-fed water systems. Many households previously relied on piped water drawn directly from mountain sources, but broken infrastructure and declining streamflow have forced residents to rely on distant streams or purchase water during dry periods. The interaction between climate stress and deteriorating infrastructure emerged as a critical mechanism shaping water insecurity. While climatic factors reduce water availability, inadequate maintenance of local water systems amplifies exposure to risk. This finding supports political ecology perspectives that vulnerability is co-produced through interactions between environmental change and institutional conditions rather than resulting solely from biophysical processes. Beyond agricultural and domestic water use, climate variability also affects cultural and spiritual practices tied to mountain ecosystems. Participants from both Hopefield and Bold Point consistently reported that medicinal plants used for healing, rituals, and household protection are becoming more difficult to locate due to changing rainfall patterns, vegetation shifts, and recurring drought conditions. One older female participant explained that some herbs do not grow like before because the rain is not the same, and communities now search for them higher up the mountain. This loss of medicinal plants represents more than a decline in biodiversity; it threatens cultural identity, traditional ecological knowledge, and intergenerational practices central to community well-being.

In Hogsback, where the local economy is driven primarily by tourism and hospitality, climate-related changes were also evident. Participants linked declining precipitation and reduced snowfall to falling groundwater levels and reduced spring recharge. Older residents recalled that snow historically contributed to groundwater replenishment and sustained local streams and wetlands. One tourism stakeholder noted that the area receives far less snow than in previous decades, and that a stream which had flowed for 140 years dried for the first time. These findings reveal that climate variability affects multiple sectors simultaneously, but the consequences differ according to livelihood dependence and resource access. Whereas rural households experience direct impacts on food production, water access, and energy security, tourism stakeholders are primarily affected through changes in landscape quality, water availability, and visitor experiences. Firewood collection patterns are also shifting across the landscape, with increasing travel distances, vegetation stress, and periodic wildlife movement reducing the availability of easily accessible fuelwood. Households reported collecting firewood less frequently, spending more time harvesting resources, or traveling further into mountain areas to meet household energy needs. Collectively, these observations suggest that climate variability is affecting multiple ecosystem services simultaneously rather than individual resources in isolation, producing an interconnected cascade of impacts that constrains livelihood options, food security, cultural practice, and local economic activities.

The findings further indicate that climate-related pressures are inseparable from governance dynamics because access to ecosystem services is mediated by institutions, power relations, and historical land-use arrangements. Across Hopefield and Bold Point, participants described a lack of formal representation in decision-making structures related to land use, water management, and forest resources. Forest areas remain controlled by private tourism operators and forestry companies, restricting access to grazing areas, trails, and other natural resources. A tourism guide explained that the forestry company managing roughly 55,000 hectares restricts access, and that communities are currently in arbitration to improve access to some mountain resources. Participants frequently linked these governance challenges to historical land dispossession and long-standing struggles for recognition and restitution, emphasizing that communities continue to rely on landscapes that were historically part of their ancestral territories but are now managed by commercial forestry or tourism enterprises. These accounts reflect recognitional injustice because participants perceived that their historical relationships with the landscape, indigenous knowledge systems, and cultural claims to natural resources receive limited acknowledgment within contemporary governance arrangements. Land restitution processes were also described as incomplete or delayed, with one female participant from Hopefield reporting that some families were paid but others are still waiting, and that communities are not part of the decision even though the land was historically theirs.

Water governance emerged as another major concern, with participants reporting inconsistent municipal water supply, poor communication during water shortages, and limited coordination between upstream and downstream users. The unequal distribution of water resources between upstream and downstream users further illustrates distributive injustice, as communities located downstream frequently experience shortages while possessing limited influence over decisions affecting water allocation and management. Although Hogsback maintains a tourism-led forum, participants acknowledged that commercial and forestry interests dominate discussions, limiting genuine community representation. One tourism stakeholder explained that the forum does not currently have direct community representatives but that they are working toward appointing one soon. The findings therefore reveal that environmental justice concerns extend beyond resource scarcity to encompass questions of power, representation, and recognition. Communities most dependent on ecosystem services frequently possess the least influence over governance processes that determine access to those resources, and these governance arrangements reproduce historical inequalities that shape contemporary patterns of resource access and exclusion.

Despite growing climate pressures and governance constraints, communities across the Amathole Mountains have developed a range of adaptation strategies combining local ecological knowledge, household coping mechanisms, and sector-specific innovations. Rural households in Hopefield and Bold Point rely heavily on ecosystem-based strategies to manage climate risks, drawing water from rivers, mountain springs, or storage tanks when the municipal water system fails. Farmers adapt by adjusting planting schedules and diversifying livelihood activities, with some households supplementing agricultural income through wild honey harvesting and small-scale trading. Seasonal livestock mobility remains a key adaptation strategy, with one young male shepherd explaining that during droughts livestock are moved up the mountain because the grass stays soft and green even in winter, and are brought back down in December. This practice illustrates the importance of local ecological knowledge in sustaining livelihoods under changing climatic conditions. In contrast, tourism enterprises in Hogsback demonstrate higher adaptive capacity due to greater financial resources and infrastructure. One tourism operator explained that they increased water storage through an artesian well, several good springs on the farm, and a large dam. Some hotel establishments have also adopted ecological technologies to manage wastewater more efficiently, with one tourism employee noting that a biological digester system was installed so wastewater can be recycled safely and used for irrigation. A central finding emerging from the data is that resilience is unevenly distributed across stakeholder groups. Tourism enterprises possess greater financial, technical, and infrastructure resources enabling capital-intensive adaptation measures, while rural households depend primarily on ecosystem-based and labor-intensive coping strategies. During recent droughts, tourism operations were able to maintain water supply through private infrastructure while nearby households faced severe shortages.

The study contends that ecosystem-based, participatory governance rooted in local knowledge and attentive to differentiated livelihood pathways is essential for biodiversity conservation, rural well-being, and climate adaptation in mountain socio-ecological systems. The researchers argue that strengthening resilience in the Amathole Mountains requires approaches that extend beyond technical adaptation measures to address inequalities in resource access, participation, and decision-making. Enhancing multi-stakeholder collaboration, improving governance accountability and transparency, supporting ecosystem restoration, and promoting climate-resilient livelihoods may strengthen adaptive capacity while advancing environmental justice. Building on existing local institutions and community networks offers a feasible pathway toward more inclusive and sustainable mountain governance. The findings highlight the need for governance approaches that simultaneously address ecological sustainability, social equity, and climate resilience in vulnerable mountain regions, demonstrating that livelihood vulnerability and resilience are co-produced through environmental and governance processes rather than environmental change alone. The study is limited by its focus on three communities within the Amathole Mountains and its reliance on qualitative stakeholder perspectives, and the researchers recommend that future research adopt longitudinal and mixed-method approaches and undertake comparative studies across mountain regions to better understand evolving relationships among climate variability, ecosystem services, governance, and environmental justice.

Subject of Research: Ecosystem services and livelihood pathways: the nexus between biodiversity governance and environmental justice in rural Eastern Cape, South Africa

Article Title: Ecosystem services and livelihood pathways: the nexus between biodiversity governance and environmental justice in rural Eastern Cape, South Africa

Article References: Effossou, K. A., & Moyo, P. (2026). Ecosystem services and livelihood pathways: the nexus between biodiversity governance and environmental justice in rural Eastern Cape, South Africa. Nature Conservation, 64, 185-212. https://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.64.191936

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.3897/natureconservation.64.191936

Keywords: Amathole Mountains, ecosystem services, environmental justice, biodiversity governance, climate variability, rural livelihoods, South Africa, Eastern Cape, resilience thinking, political ecology, water security, mountain socio-ecological systems