The scale of the problem the review addresses is considerable. Meta-analytic research has found roughly a one standard deviation gap in mean scores between Black and White samples in occupational testing, with a more recent analysis by Sackett and colleagues reporting an effect size of d = .79, still a large difference by psychological standards. Socioeconomic status shows a more modest association, with childhood SES explaining around five percent of adult intelligence in one major study. Gender differences, by contrast, are largely absent from overall general intelligence scores, largely because early test builders such as Binet and Terman deliberately constructed their instruments to avoid them, but they emerge clearly within specific cognitive domains: men tend to score higher on spatial and numerical tasks, women on verbal ones. These patterns matter because cognitive ability tests remain the single strongest predictor of job performance for candidates without prior experience in a role, a conclusion drawn from 85 years of selection research by Schmidt and Hunter.

To untangle the competing explanations, the researchers followed PRISMA-P systematic review protocols, searching PsycINFO, PsychArticles, Web of Science and Business Source Ultimate with deliberately broad search terms designed to capture multiple and conflicting viewpoints. From an initial haul of 1,124 papers, 316 were removed as duplicates, 541 were screened out on abstracts and 140 failed the inclusion criteria, leaving 127 papers that were fully reviewed. A further 98 studies were added through backward and forward citation searching, bringing the total to 225. The team excluded child and clinical samples, non-human research and studies of cognitive decline, focusing instead on healthy working-aged adults, and they deliberately excluded research based solely on standardised academic tests such as the SAT, whose heavy reliance on test preparation would have skewed the findings. Each paper was tagged against emerging explanatory accounts, ultimately yielding ten factors: biological differences, environmental differences, latent trait and measurement invariance, criterion validity, item bias, test-taking behaviour, anxiety, attitudes, experience and stereotype threat.

The biological evidence, drawn from 63 papers, is dominated by research on gender. Brain imaging studies have repeatedly found differences in neural activation between women and men during cognitive tasks, although these are not universal and one study found activation differences inconsistent with the cognitive domains that actually showed behavioural gaps. Hormonal accounts have attracted enormous attention: testosterone has been linked to spatial performance in both sexes, oestrogen to verbal performance, and experimental administration of testosterone has improved spatial performance in women. Several studies found women’s performance fluctuates across the menstrual cycle, with better spatial performance during the menstrual phase and better verbal performance during the luteal phase, though not all studies replicate these effects. Twin research has provided modest support for genetic contributions, and one longitudinal study found pubertal testosterone predicted adult spatial performance in men. Crucially, however, 61 of the 63 biological papers concerned gender, only two touched ethnicity and none addressed socioeconomic status, and no biological studies were conducted on high-stakes testing.

Environmental factors, examined in 15 papers, showed unambiguous support. Parental education, individual education level, income, language proficiency and generational immigration status, all of which vary by ethnicity and socioeconomic background, were related to cognitive ability scores. Strikingly, ethnic differences were significantly reduced when controlling for years of education, language proficiency and immigration status, and differences were more pronounced on verbal tasks, a pattern consistent with environmental contribution. Childhood preference for gendered spatial toys and childhood spatial play predicted adult spatial performance, and oral contraceptive use and type influenced verbal and spatial task performance. These findings carry a sober implication for employers: because environmental factors are unlikely to be mitigated through changes to testing procedures, no redesign of a test will ever fully eliminate group differences.

On the technical side of the ledger, the review found that test bias itself plays a smaller role than critics have often assumed. Across 23 papers on item bias and differential item functioning, studies generally either failed to identify biased items or found that biased items negligibly affected overall scores, even though high-quality studies with large samples confirmed that differential item functioning does exist on individual items. Interestingly, several studies found that using human figures rather than abstract shapes as item content reduced the gender gap in mental rotation performance, and gender-stereotyped item content sometimes created bias. Criterion validity studies, which draw on genuine high-stakes testing data, showed that cognitive tests frequently do not underpredict the job performance of women or ethnic minorities, and in some cases overpredict it, which argues against simple test bias as the explanation for score gaps. Yet the picture is inconsistent, with some studies finding tests less predictive of training performance for Black recruits, and the authors note that most criterion studies assume no bias in the criterion itself, typically subjective supervisor ratings.

The most heavily researched contextual factor is stereotype threat, the phenomenon whereby awareness of a negative stereotype about one’s group impairs performance on the stereotyped task. Seventy-five papers met the review’s criteria, with robust findings that threat impacts performance by gender, ethnicity and socioeconomic status, and worse effects for people holding multiple threatened identities. The two best-supported mechanisms are the depletion of working memory and executive resources and the misinterpretation of anxious arousal. Encouragingly, a range of interventions work: simply stating that a test shows no group differences, presenting a competent role model from the threatened group, teaching people about stereotype threat itself, mindfulness exercises and self-affirmation have all disrupted the effect. But the review flags a critical weakness: very few studies were conducted on high-stakes testing, and field studies such as one by Gillespie and colleagues struggled to replicate laboratory-sized effects in real occupational settings, suggesting experimental conditions may inflate the apparent magnitude of threat.

Experience and self-confidence emerged as quietly powerful factors. Multiple studies found that training, practice tests and practice items improved spatial performance more for women than men, in some cases eliminating the gender gap entirely, and playing action video games reduced the gap with women improving more than men. Practice and training also improved Black test-takers’ performance more than White test-takers’. Self-confidence mediated the relationship between gender and spatial performance, and in a particularly compelling experiment, Estes and Felker showed that manipulating confidence directly increased women’s performance on a spatial task. The authors suggest that effective test strategies may themselves be developed through domain experience, meaning that greater exposure to test content and more elaborate instructions in selection testing could reduce group differences without sacrificing validity.

The review is candid about the limitations of the evidence base it synthesised. Only 14 percent of studies met the criteria for ecological validity, meaning they were based on or closely resembled genuine high-stakes test use. Seventy-one percent relied on majority or exclusively student samples, reaching 94 percent in anxiety research and 91 percent in attitudes research, and students differ systematically from working populations in age, education, socioeconomic background and motivation. Fifty-five percent of studies used exclusively US samples, and only four percent drew participants exclusively from outside North America and Europe. Risk-of-bias appraisal using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool revealed widespread failure to control for confounders in non-randomised studies, and only 44 of the 225 papers examined multiple factors at once, leaving the interactions between explanations, for example between stereotype threat, anxiety and self-confidence, largely unmapped.

The practical upshot is a roadmap for fairer hiring. The authors recommend that test developers and users work to mitigate stereotype threat, address advantages gained through domain experience and exposure, and reduce differences in self-confidence, while also exploring state anxiety and continuing to screen for differential item functioning even though its overall impact is small. Because organisations lack highly valid selection methods that show no group differences, and because cognitive tests remain the best available predictor of performance, the diversity-validity dilemma will not be solved by abandoning these tests. Instead, the review suggests, progress lies in recognising that some of the gap is an artifact of the testing process itself, and that careful changes to how tests are designed, framed and administered can chip away at it, even as the deeper biological and environmental roots of group differences remind us that no test redesign will make them disappear entirely.

Subject of Research: Explanatory factors for demographic group mean score differences on cognitive ability tests in employee selection

Article Title: Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review

Article References: Cuppello, S., Zibarras, L. D., & Corr, P. J. (2025). Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review. Trends in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43076-025-00504-5

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s43076-025-00504-5

Keywords: cognitive ability tests, employee selection, stereotype threat, psychometrics, group differences, test bias, spatial ability, self-confidence, socioeconomic status, measurement invariance, test anxiety, systematic review