The research team, led by Deepika Menon of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln together with colleagues at Southern Methodist University, Towson University, and Indiana University Southeast, used a mixed-methods design combining a validated self-efficacy survey with open-ended questionnaires administered at the beginning and end of science or STEM methods courses. The survey instrument, known as SETIS, measures three dimensions of confidence: personal capability, the ability to connect disciplines and engage students, and the capacity to manage materials and technology. Statistical analyses, including repeated-measures multivariate tests and paired comparisons, revealed significant gains across all three dimensions by semester’s end, with the largest improvement in teachers’ beliefs about their own abilities.

That growth matters because self-efficacy, a concept rooted in social cognitive theory, is strongly linked to whether teachers adopt innovative practices, persist through difficulties, and remain in the profession. Teachers with low confidence in STEM tend to avoid reform-based instruction and give up more easily when lessons falter. The finding that a single semester of hands-on, inquiry-based methods coursework, whether embedded in a science methods course or a dedicated STEM semester, produced medium-to-large gains suggests that teacher preparation programs can move the needle on the beliefs that ultimately shape classroom practice.

Yet the qualitative side of the study tells a more complicated story. Analyzing roughly 1,300 coded response segments, the researchers identified six broad categories of perceived challenges: teacher affect and experience, student-related concerns, content and curricular demands, pedagogical difficulties, support from colleagues and parents, and time and resources. By the end of the semester, participants reported significantly fewer overall challenges, particularly around science content knowledge and pedagogical confidence, but two concerns intensified rather than faded: worries about teaching engineering and doubts about integrating technology.

The researchers interpret this pattern through two complementary frameworks. Windschitl’s model of teacher dilemmas, spanning conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political tensions, helps explain how future teachers wrestle with what integrated STEM knowledge even means and how to enact it in real classrooms. Ertmer’s distinction between first-order barriers, such as limited time, materials, and institutional support, and second-order barriers rooted in personal beliefs and confidence, maps closely onto the challenges participants described. Content knowledge gaps and pedagogical uncertainty, the internal barriers, shrank after coursework. External constraints, especially time for planning and teaching STEM amid crowded elementary schedules, grew more salient as participants gained a clearer-eyed view of classroom realities.

Several findings stand out for their implications. Concerns about meeting state standards and assessment demands barely budged, with participants observing that elementary curricula leave little room for STEM when reading and mathematics dominate. One participant at a STEM integration school noted that despite the label, STEM instruction was rare. Meanwhile, structural equation modeling revealed that teachers who still felt unprepared in science or STEM content at semester’s end scored significantly lower on self-efficacy, confirming that content preparedness remains a critical lever. Intriguingly, identifying technology access as a challenge was associated with higher self-efficacy, suggesting that more confident teachers may simply be more aware of the resource constraints they will face.

The study also surfaced demographic patterns that warrant attention. Participants who had spent five or more years in college reported lower self-efficacy, possibly because their extended, full-year student teaching exposed them to a more sobering view of classroom challenges. Hispanic/Latino participants reported lower self-efficacy than their White peers, a result the authors connect to broader literature on inequities in STEM access and representation, and one they argue demands further investigation across more diverse populations.

The authors are careful about limits. Because data were self-reported at only two time points, and because most participants had not yet completed full-time student teaching, self-efficacy estimates may be somewhat inflated. The analysis also pooled data across five quite different programs, so it cannot isolate which specific course features drove the gains. Still, the breadth of the sample strengthens confidence that the overall pattern, rising efficacy alongside persistent and evolving concerns, reflects something real about how teacher preparation works.

The practical implications are pointed. The researchers recommend that preparation programs increase dedicated attention to engineering design and technology integration, precisely the areas where confidence lagged or declined. They suggest strategic school and informal-education placements so future teachers can witness successful integrated STEM instruction in action, something many mentor elementary classrooms rarely model. They also call for partnerships between universities and school administrators to address resource gaps, and for collaboration between STEM content faculty and education faculty to build better curricula. Longitudinal follow-up studies, the authors argue, should track whether the challenges these future teachers anticipate actually materialize once they enter elementary classrooms, closing the loop between preparation and practice.

Subject of Research: Preservice elementary teachers' integrated STEM teaching self-efficacy and perceived challenges

Article Title: “I learned a lot, but…”: preservice elementary teachers’ integrated STEM teaching self-efficacy and perceived challenges

Article References: Menon, D., Wieselmann, J. R., Haines, S., Asim, S., & Johnson, A. (2026). “I learned a lot, but…”: preservice elementary teachers’ integrated STEM teaching self-efficacy and perceived challenges. International Journal of STEM Education, 13(1), Article 56. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-026-00645-8

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1186/s40594-026-00645-8

Keywords: integrated STEM, self-efficacy, preservice teachers, elementary education, teacher preparation, STEM challenges, engineering education, methods coursework, mixed methods, structural equation modeling, educational psychology, K-12 STEM

Initially, many pre-service teachers approach ESP education with a simplistic understanding, often viewing it solely through a content-driven lens. Early in their training, these educators tend to prioritize subject-matter expertise, believing that deep knowledge in specific disciplines eclipses pedagogical skill as the chief qualifier for effective ESP teaching. This conception aligns with a historically entrenched notion that mastery of content inherently guarantees instructional success. However, as these trainees navigate their teacher education programs, they confront new pedagogical theories and immersive teaching experiences that compel them to reconsider this assumption.

The study reveals that the pathway of belief change in ESP teacher education is far from straightforward. Rather than a linear progression from misconception to clarity, belief transformation unfolds in a nuanced, multifaceted manner. Some individuals rigidly maintain their initial stances, resistant to theoretical challenges, while others exhibit gradual adaptation. Still, a subset experiences profound reorientation of their pedagogical worldviews. This divergence is influenced by varying degrees of openness to novel ideas, prior educational experiences, and innate reflective capacities. Such heterogeneity in belief trajectories underscores the necessity for teacher education programs to diversify their instructional approaches.

Examining individual cases provides further insight into these cognitive shifts. For example, a participant named Chau demonstrated a strong affinity for pedagogical theory, facilitating a deep and sustained transformation in their instructional beliefs. Conversely, Tra’s limited engagement with pedagogical constructs resulted in only incremental change, occasionally regressing into earlier misconceptions. Participant A presented a fluctuating pattern, oscillating between reinforcing original beliefs and tentative modifications, a phenomenon traced back to inconsistent mentoring and feedback during their practicum experience. Such cases highlight the critical role of mentorship quality in belief development.

Another significant illustration is Jin’s transition from a vocabulary-centric teaching approach to a more nuanced awareness of contextual communication. This shift was enabled by structured training modules that transcended superficial content delivery, fostering a richer understanding of how language functions within specific professional domains. Similarly, Mei’s pedagogical journey evolved from grammar-focused instruction toward a student-centered, communicative model, a change largely attributed to authentic classroom observations that provided tangible exemplars of effective teaching practices.

Reflective practices emerge as pivotal mechanisms in belief alteration, as evidenced by Bo’s shift from a formalist perspective toward interaction-oriented pedagogy. Through sustained reflective journaling, Bo engaged in critical self-assessment, allowing for incremental refinement of teaching philosophies grounded in classroom realities rather than abstract theory. Lin’s belief transformation, while less dramatic, was characterized by the reinforcement of pre-existing awareness of the importance of contextualization in ESP instruction. For Lin, practical teaching activities affirmed and strengthened these foundational beliefs.

Work experience, too, exerts a powerful influence on teacher cognition in ESP contexts. Xia’s evolution from a heavily content-driven approach to one that emphasizes scaffolded communicative methodologies exemplifies how real-world teaching challenges can recalibrate entrenched assumptions. Encountering diverse learner needs and situational variables compels pre-service teachers like Xia to adapt flexibly, moving away from rigid adherence to content in favor of approaches that foster learner engagement and autonomy. Similarly, Fei’s progression from ambiguous conceptions of ESP to a clear, functional, learner-oriented pedagogical stance illustrates the crystallizing effect of sustained exposure to authentic teaching contexts.

Central to these transformations is the internship experience, which emerges as the single most decisive factor shaping evolving beliefs. Internships provide an invaluable bridge between theoretical knowledge acquisition and practical application, exposing pre-service teachers to genuine classroom dynamics and learner interactions. These real-life scenarios reveal the shortcomings of strictly content-driven methodologies, emphasizing instead the necessity for student-centered instruction that accommodates motivation, engagement, and diverse learning preferences.

The authentic experiences encountered during internships function as critical incidents prompting reflective evaluation. When combined with constructive feedback and supportive mentorship, these experiences empower pre-service teachers to critically appraise and integrate pedagogical theories into their practical teaching repertoire. Participants consistently report that mentorship offers a safe and encouraging environment for collaborative problem-solving, innovation in instructional strategies, and professional growth through shared reflection. Feedback regarding lesson adaptation and student interaction techniques was especially highlighted as instrumental in refining teaching approaches.

Practical teaching experiences challenge preconceptions and encourage recalibration of instructional priorities. The necessity of managing real, diverse classroom contexts fosters an appreciation for flexibility and responsiveness in ESP teaching—qualities seldom emphasized in purely theoretical settings. Crucially, the immediacy of applying learned theoretical concepts during internships consolidates learning and accelerates belief evolution. This synergy between theory and practice constitutes a cornerstone of effective ESP teacher education.

Nevertheless, the study acknowledges limitations that temper the scope of its conclusions. With a relatively small sample size, the generalizability of findings remains constrained, inviting replication with broader participant cohorts across varied institutional settings. The reliance on self-report instruments such as reflective journals and interviews introduces potential biases, including selective memory and social desirability effects. Augmenting future research designs with objective data sources—peer evaluations, classroom recordings, or longitudinal assessments—would yield more comprehensive insights into belief developmental trajectories.

Moreover, the study’s temporal focus on pre-service training leaves open the question of how these evolving beliefs manifest and transform during the subsequent professional teaching careers of ESP educators. Longitudinal inquiries tracking belief-practice congruence in in-service contexts would elucidate the durability and practical impact of initial pedagogical shifts discovered during teacher preparation. Another promising direction involves exploring the moderating influence of institutional and cultural contexts in shaping ESP teacher cognition, given that these factors profoundly affect educational paradigms and resource availability.

Another critical avenue for future scholarship lies in differentiating the roles of self-reflection modalities. Participants varied in their reflective capacities, and structured reflective exercises might be pivotal in expediting or deepening pedagogical conceptual change. Designing and empirically validating reflective frameworks tailored for ESP teacher development could enhance the efficacy of teacher education programs, fostering more adaptive, informed, and resilient educators.

Despite these caveats, the study’s contribution to the field of ESP teacher education is substantial. It illuminates the malleability of pre-service teacher beliefs when exposed to well-integrated pedagogical training and authentic teaching experiences, thus challenging static notions of professional cognition. By revealing the intricate interplay between theory, practice, reflection, and mentorship, the research champions a holistic approach to teacher development that prepares ESP instructors for the complexities of real classrooms.

Educational stakeholders aimed at optimizing ESP teacher training should take heed of these insights. Programs that embed early and continuous practical experiences, coupled with reflective mentorship and robust pedagogical coursework, stand to produce novice teachers equipped with nuanced understandings and adaptable strategies aligned with learners’ diverse needs. This integrative model promises to enhance the quality, responsiveness, and ultimately the effectiveness of ESP instruction in an increasingly specialized and globalized educational environment.

In sum, this comprehensive exploration into pre-service ESP teacher belief evolution underscores a vital paradigm shift in language teacher education. It moves the discourse beyond content mastery towards embracing the intertwined dimensions of pedagogy, contextual awareness, and reflective practice. As ESP continues to gain prominence worldwide, preparing educators who can skillfully navigate these complexities is imperative, and this research offers a foundational blueprint for achieving that goal.

Subject of Research:
Pre-service teachers’ evolving beliefs about English for Specific Purposes (ESP) instruction and the factors influencing this transformation during teacher education.

Article Title:
Exploring the evolution of pre-service teachers’ beliefs about English for Specific Purposes (ESP) through case studies from a teacher education program.

Article References:
Shi, Y., Shen, X. & Chang, Y. Exploring the evolution of pre-service teachers’ beliefs about English for specific purposes (ESP) through case studies from a teacher education program.
Humanit Soc Sci Commun 12, 1547 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05854-0

Image Credits: AI Generated