Natalie Mueller, an expert in agrobiodiversity and an assistant professor of archaeology at Washington University in St. Louis, has devoted her research to unearthing these forgotten agricultural traditions. In her recent publication in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B dated May 15, 2024, Mueller synthesizes decades of archaeological, botanical, and ethnographic evidence to reveal a more complex and ecologically integrated prehistoric agricultural system. Her work emphasizes the potential revival of these “sleeping” crops and agricultural techniques, positioning them not as lost curiosities but as viable alternatives adaptable to today’s climatic challenges.

Mueller challenges the long-standing term “lost crops,” opting instead for “sleeping crops” to reposition these plants and their agricultural histories within a living continuum of Indigenous stewardship. This linguistic shift was inspired by members of the St. Louis Native American Women’s Care Circle, who emphasized that the notion of “lost” perpetuates colonial myths of extinction and erasure. To Indigenous seed keepers, seeds possess agency; they are dormant, waiting for their caretakers to reconnect and fulfill reciprocal responsibilities. Such a framework underscores contemporary movements focused on Indigenous food sovereignty and seed reclamation—efforts that breathe life back into these neglected crops.

The crops Mueller studies are often dismissed as weeds: species such as little barley (Hordeum pusillum), maygrass (Phalaris caroliniana), sumpweed (Iva annua), goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri), and knotweed (Polygonum erectum). These were once intentionally domesticated and cultivated components of Indigenous agricultural systems that extended well beyond the better-known triad of corn, beans, and squash. While squashes and sunflowers remain common today, the domesticated varieties of these other species have largely vanished. Mueller’s work calls attention to the expansive biodiversity once managed by Indigenous peoples, which included not just annual crops but also perennial plants integrated within forest, wetland, and prairie ecosystems.

What makes this ancient system remarkable is its ability to reconcile productivity with biodiversity. Unlike many modern, industrialized agricultural paradigms that prioritize monoculture and high yields at the expense of ecological health, prehistoric Indigenous agriculture in eastern North America fostered thriving, resilient agroecosystems. These systems optimized food outputs while preserving habitat complexity, soil integrity, and ecological functions. The methodological insights gleaned from these ancient practices hold profound implications for sustainable agriculture, particularly in the face of accelerating climate change and environmental degradation.

One pressing contemporary problem where such knowledge may prove invaluable involves the increasing frequency and intensity of flooding events throughout the Midwestern United States. Current agricultural staples like corn and soybeans are ill-suited to withstand unpredictable flood dynamics, making floodplain fields vulnerable to catastrophic damage. Muller proposes the reintegration of wetland and flood-adapted crops into these landscapes. These species, by their very nature, demand fewer inputs, reducing the reliance on artificial soil amendments and costly infrastructure aimed at flood control, and thus potentially offering a more resilient and ecologically sound agricultural alternative.

Engagement with Indigenous communities is central to Mueller’s approach in cultivating these “sleeping” crops anew. Historical ecology elsewhere has supported collaborations that simultaneously advance scientific understanding while facilitating Indigenous reclamation of ancestral lands and resources. Such collaborative research remains sparse in the eastern North American context, where forced displacements and complex jurisdictional legacies complicate access to traditional territories. Nonetheless, promising models exist, such as the Rivercane Restoration Alliance, which brings together government agencies, conservation organizations, and tribal nations in a cooperative effort to restore cultural keystone species and promote ecological restoration.

Within her own research lab at Washington University, Mueller has begun cautiously resurrecting these crops through seed banking and dissemination initiatives. The lab maintains a repository of progenitor seeds of these underappreciated species, distributing them to educational institutions, Indigenous growers, and students. Alongside these efforts, they offer cultivation guides detailing practical aspects of growing and processing the seeds. This work is an early but critical step toward experimental archaeology and applied research aimed at understanding the ecological requirements of these species and their potential to be reintegrated into contemporary food systems.

Crucially, Mueller’s research scope is expanding beyond annual “sleeping” crops to encompass perennial food plants traditionally cared for by Indigenous peoples. Species like American lotus (Nelumbo lutea), sunchokes (Helianthus tuberosus), and persimmons (Diospyros virginiana) illustrate how Native agriculturalists enhanced natural ecosystems without imposing homogenizing tendencies typical of industrial farming. These perennial plants often thrive within forests and wetlands, and their integration into managed landscapes demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of ecological interactions and resource management.

The overarching genius of eastern North America’s ancient agricultural system lies in this alliance between humans and ecosystems, characterized by a nuanced blending of cultivation and foraging. Rather than striving to dominate or replace natural biodiversity, Indigenous farmers worked in concert with it. This agroecological paradigm offers a template for creating resilient food systems that adapt to environmental variability while supporting biodiversity and ecosystem services fundamental to long-term agricultural sustainability.

This new synthesis of “sleeping” crops not only enriches our understanding of precolonial agriculture but also reframes agricultural heritage as dynamic and ongoing. It challenges the assumptions underpinning modern food systems and opens pathways toward diversification, resilience, and ecological harmony. As the urgency to address climate crises intensifies, revisiting Indigenous agricultural wisdom offers promising avenues for innovation and restoration, blending ancient knowledge with cutting-edge science and Indigenous sovereignty movements.

Mueller’s work underscores the critical importance of inclusive research frameworks that honor Indigenous epistemologies and stewardship. It is through this collaborative and respectful engagement that the agricultural potential of eastern North America’s “sleeping” crops can germinate once more—awakening forgotten seeds and planting new futures for diversified, sustainable, and culturally grounded food production.

Subject of Research: Agrobiodiversity and ancient agricultural systems of eastern North America, focusing on domesticated “sleeping” crops and Indigenous food sovereignty.

Article Title: The sleeping crops of eastern North America: a new synthesis

News Publication Date: May 15, 2024

Web References:

• Interview and research summary at Washington University in St. Louis Anthropology Department: https://anthropology.wustl.edu/people/natalie-mueller
• Original paper: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0192
• Rivercane Restoration Alliance: https://conserve-group.org/rra
• Lost Crops cultivation guides: https://sites.wustl.edu/lostcrops/lost-crops-cultivation-guides/

References: See DOI 10.1098/rstb.2024.0192

Keywords: Anthropology, Archaeology, Ethnobotany, Plant sciences, Sustainable agriculture, Climate change, Land use, Natural resources

The study, recently published in The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, reveals the pivotal role of a small peptide known as CLE16. This molecule, produced by plant roots, facilitates the interaction between plants and beneficial soil fungi, thereby establishing a symbiotic relationship where each party contributes essential resources for optimal growth. By leveraging this natural alliance, the researchers suggest that it may be possible to reduce or entirely replace the harmful effects of synthetic fertilizers on agriculture.

Plants and fungi have been engaging in symbiotic relationships for thousands of years. In this natural alliance, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi enhance nutrient absorption for plants, providing vital minerals such as phosphorous and water in exchange for carbon molecules. This win-win situation is fundamental for sustaining plant health and productivity. However, decades of intensive agricultural practices have dulled the traits that support this mutualistic relationship in modern crops. The study’s senior author, Lena Mueller, emphasizes that conventional breeding practices have inadvertently diminished these beneficial interactions, leaving crops vulnerable and dependent on chemical fertilizers.

Through innovative research, the Salk team identified that by restoring the natural symbiotic mechanisms between plants and fungi, crops can flourish sustainably. Their research involved cultivating the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus alongside Medicago truncatula, a Mediterranean legume. The results were nothing short of astonishing. As the two organisms formed a symbiotic partnership, it became evident that the legumes began expressing significant amounts of CLE16. This prominent signaling molecule is a part of the elusive CLE family, which governs various physiological processes in plants.

Interestingly, while many CLE peptides have previously been studied, often with a focus on their inhibitive effects on symbiosis, the Salk researchers have highlighted CLE16 for its role in promoting these beneficial relationships. Sagar Bashyal, a graduate student and first author of the study, expressed excitement about discovering a plant CLE peptide that actively encourages symbiosis and contrasts with previous findings in the literature. This revelation opens a new chapter in understanding plant-fungi interactions, offering promising implications for sustainable agriculture.

In confirming the efficacy of CLE16 in fostering symbiotic relationships, the research team conducted additional experiments in which they introduced excess amounts of the peptide into the soil environment. The outcomes were remarkable: the addition of CLE16 reinforced the growth and longevity of fungal arbuscules, specialized structures integral to nutrient exchange. This amplification of fungal presence within plant roots led to a self-reinforcing loop: increased fungal colonization triggered higher production of CLE16, further encouraging the partnership between plants and fungi.

Continuing their exploration, the researchers unveiled the intricate signaling pathways governing the plant-fungal communication facilitated by CLE16. Their findings revealed that the interaction operates through a signaling protein known as CORYNE, part of the CLAVATA receptor complex, which plays a critical role in how plants respond to their environmental conditions. Notably, when plants experience stress, they typically enter a heightened immune state, which can hinder their receptiveness to beneficial fungi. The research indicates that when CLE16 binds to the CRN-CLAVATA receptor complex, it alleviates plant stress, allowing favorable fungi to penetrate root systems to initiate nutrient-sharing.

The study uncovered an additional layer of complexity: many arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are also capable of producing CLE16-like peptides. This remarkable phenomenon suggests that these fungal peptides mimic plant CLE16, which strengthens the symbiotic bond by binding to the same receptors in the plant. The revelation that both plant-derived and fungal-derived CLE16 peptides can bolster symbiosis presents exciting potential for agricultural applications and methods to enrich farmland sustainably.

With robust evidence that both types of CLE peptides enhance symbiotic relationships, researchers are optimistic about the applications of these findings on a broader agricultural scale. The Salk team aims to explore whether CLE16 supplementation in key crops like soy, corn, and wheat can yield similar positive effects, thereby potentially replacing chemical fertilizers with a natural and sustainable alternative. This shifts the narrative from reliance on artificial additives to harnessing natural soil biological systems to enhance crop productivity.

In summary, the findings offer a dual advantage: not only do arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi act as a biological fertilizer, but they also provide a protective layer against pests. By leveraging the insights gained from this innovative research, there is an opportunity to reduce pesticide usage and enhance the overall sustainability of agricultural practices. Mueller’s vision for the future is clear: fostering beneficial fungi and microbial interactions can lead to healthier crops, robust soils, and a more sustainable agricultural landscape.

The implications of this research extend beyond the immediate environmental effects. As the global population continues to rise, ensuring food security while mitigating damage to ecosystems is paramount. By prioritizing the relationships between plants and fungi, researchers are paving the way for a transformative shift in agricultural strategies, which may usher in an era of sustainable farming practices that prioritize ecological health while meeting human needs.

In conclusion, the pioneering work at the Salk Institute not only sheds light on the forgotten symbiotic relationships within ecosystems but also marks a significant turning point in the agricultural industry’s approach to fertilizer use. Recognizing, understanding, and restoring these natural mechanisms holds enormous potential for revolutionizing farming practices, making them healthier for both crops and the planet.

Subject of Research: Plant-Fungal Symbiosis and Sustainable Agriculture
Article Title: Unlocking the Secrets of Plant-Fungal Symbiosis: A New Path to Sustainable Agriculture
News Publication Date: April 18, 2025
Web References: https://www.salk.edu/
References: The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Image Credits: Credit: Salk Institute

Keywords: Sustainable agriculture, Mycorrhizal fungi, Symbiosis, Plant signaling, Fertilizers, Soil health, Plant biology, Eco-friendly practices.