The research, led by Yi Yi Mon and Pattrarat Teamkao of King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang in Bangkok, together with colleagues at several Thai institutions, set out to answer a deceptively simple question: can salt-tolerant bacteria that colonize the interior of rice plants meaningfully protect the crop across entire growing seasons, not just in short-lived laboratory assays? To find out, the team ran a rigorously controlled greenhouse experiment laid out as a 3 by 5 factorial design in a randomized complete block arrangement. Three salinity levels were crossed with five bacterial treatments: an uninoculated control and four distinct salt-tolerant endophytic isolates designated CKPK01, SHPP21, SHPP24, and SKPK29. Crucially, the experiment was repeated across two consecutive growing seasons, giving the results a robustness that single-season pot studies often lack.

The scale of the salt threat became starkly clear in the uninoculated plants. When rice was exposed to the highest salinity level tested — an electrical conductivity of 8 dS/m sustained for 21 days during the rainy season — the plants showed severe physiological and morphological deterioration. Chlorophyll content, measured with a SPAD chlorophyll meter, collapsed to a reading of just 35.9, the lowest recorded in the study. Relative water content in the tissues fell to 72.9 percent, signaling that the plants were struggling to hold onto water even in a flooded paddy environment. Meanwhile, electrolyte leakage, a classic marker of damage to cell membranes, climbed to 30.9 percent, and proline — an amino acid that plants accumulate as a stress buffer and osmotic protectant — surged to 665.5 micrograms per gram, its maximum in the experiment.

The morphological toll was just as dramatic. Salt-stressed, uninoculated rice grew to a height of only 123 centimeters and produced a mere 9.1 tillers, the leafy shoots that ultimately bear grain. When harvest came, the damage translated directly into yield loss: 1,000-grain weight sank to 16.8 grams, grain yield per pot dropped to 10.0 grams, and a staggering 70.8 percent of the grains were unfilled — empty husks where plump kernels should have been. Visual salt injury scores reached 7.8 on the damage scale, and the researchers noted that this pattern of degradation repeated consistently across both growing seasons, underscoring how reliably salinity undermines rice productivity when the plant is left to cope alone.

Against this grim baseline, the bacterial inoculations produced striking turnarounds. All four isolates improved plant performance relative to the uninoculated controls, but two stood out. The SHPP24 isolate delivered the most consistent and impressive results, even at the harshest salinity of 8 dS/m. In the rainy season, rice inoculated with SHPP24 achieved the highest SPAD chlorophyll reading of 43.9, the highest relative water content of 84.6 percent, and a proline content of 466.3 micrograms per gram fresh weight at 21 days after salt treatment. That proline figure deserves careful reading: while proline accumulation is often treated as a stress symptom, moderate elevation in inoculated plants reflects an actively managed osmotic adjustment that helps cells retain water and protect proteins — a sign of a plant coping well rather than one in collapse.

The yield data drove the point home. SHPP24-inoculated plants produced the heaviest grains, with a 1,000-grain weight of 23.2 grams compared with 16.8 grams in the salt-stressed controls, and the highest grain yield at 21.7 grams per pot — more than double the uninoculated plants under the same salinity. Membrane integrity told a parallel story: electrolyte leakage in the SHPP24 treatment was held to just 16.0 percent, less than half the level seen in the controls, and the proportion of unfilled grains was limited to 38.7 percent, far below the 70.8 percent recorded without bacterial help. The SKPK29 isolate closely followed this performance, displaying a similar trend across both seasons and confirming that the effect was not a quirk of a single bacterial strain.

What makes these results scientifically compelling is their consistency. Salinity stress damages plants through several interlocking mechanisms: excess sodium ions disrupt enzyme function and nutrient uptake, the osmotic pull of salt in the soil solution makes water harder to absorb, and ionic toxicity accelerates the production of reactive oxygen species that shred membranes and degrade chlorophyll. The measurements in this study capture each of these fronts. Higher SPAD readings indicate preserved photosynthetic machinery; higher relative water content reflects improved osmotic regulation; lower electrolyte leakage signals membranes that remain intact under ionic assault; and improved tiller number, plant height, grain filling, and grain weight show that the physiological protection cascades all the way to harvestable yield. The fact that these benefits appeared across two contrasting growing seasons suggests the bacterial effect is robust rather than an artifact of one particular set of weather conditions.

Endophytic bacteria — microbes that live within plant tissues without causing disease — are thought to help their hosts through a suite of mechanisms that plant scientists have been cataloging for years. They can produce plant hormones that stimulate growth, enzymes that soften the plant’s stress responses, and molecules that scavenge reactive oxygen species. Some facilitate nutrient acquisition, while others appear to modulate the expression of plant genes involved in ion transport and osmotic protection. The Thai team’s isolates, having been selected for salt tolerance in their own right, presumably carry traits that allow them to remain active inside plant tissues precisely when salinity would otherwise shut down both microbe and host. While the study documents the phenotypic outcomes rather than dissecting every molecular pathway, the pattern of improved water relations, membrane stability, and yield points to a coordinated enhancement of the plant’s stress-defense arsenal.

The implications for agriculture are considerable. Rice feeds more people than any other crop, and salt-affected soils are expanding as sea levels rise, aquifers are over-extracted, and irrigation practices concentrate salts in the root zone. Breeding salt-tolerant rice varieties is a long and complex endeavor, and amending saline soils with gypsum or flushing them with fresh water is often expensive or simply infeasible for smallholder farmers. Seed or seedling treatments with endophytic bacteria, by contrast, are cheap, scalable, and compatible with existing farming practices. If the greenhouse findings translate to the field, a simple microbial inoculant could meaningfully recover yield on land that is currently marginal, turning a biological resource — the plant microbiome — into a practical tool for food security in salt-affected regions.

The researchers themselves are careful about the next step. They recommend multi-location field trials to validate the results under diverse saline field conditions before any commercial application, a prudent caveat given that greenhouse pots cannot fully reproduce the variability of real soils, microbial communities, and weather. Still, the consistency of SHPP24 and SKPK29 across two growing seasons, and the magnitude of the yield recovery they delivered under severe salt stress, mark this study as one of the more convincing demonstrations to date that endophytic bacteria can serve as dependable bioinoculants for rice. As salinity creeps across more of the world’s farmland, the idea that the solution might already be living inside the plant itself is an appealing one — and one that this Thai team has moved considerably closer to reality.

Subject of Research: Use of salt-tolerant endophytic bacteria to improve rice growth and yield under salinity stress

Article Title: Endophytic bacteria improve physiology, growth, and yield of rice under salinity stress across two growing seasons

Article References: Mon, Y. Y., Aninbon, C., Junpatiw Ahuja, A., Ruttanaprasert, R., Janket, A., & Teamkao, P. (2026). Endophytic bacteria improve physiology, growth, and yield of rice under salinity stress across two growing seasons. BMC Plant Biology. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-026-10097-5

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1186/s12870-026-10097-5

Keywords: endophytic bacteria, rice, salinity stress, plant growth-promoting bacteria, grain yield, proline, electrolyte leakage, chlorophyll, food security, bioinoculants, plant physiology, Thailand