Researchers at the University of California, Davis, led by Sara K. Pintwala and Patrick M. Fuller, used single-nucleus RNA sequencing to profile individual neurons from the lateral hypothalamus of adult female and male mice. The technique captures the complete transcriptome — the full inventory of genes being actively read — from thousands of individual cell nuclei at once. Tissue was collected precisely at the onset of the dark phase, zeitgeber time 12, a biologically charged moment when nocturnal animals transition from rest to activity and when competing drives like feeding, exploration, and wakefulness surge together.

The team sequenced more than 85,000 nuclei in total, ultimately isolating 33,235 high-quality neuronal nuclei — 16,432 from females and 16,803 from males. After correcting for ambient RNA contamination, removing doublets, and integrating the datasets to control for batch effects, the researchers asked a deceptively simple question: do male and female lateral hypothalamic neurons differ in the genes that build and receive circadian signals?

The first surprise was what they did not find. When the researchers clustered all the nuclei together using unsupervised computational methods, the analysis revealed 24 distinct neuronal clusters — and every single one contained cells from both sexes. There was no evidence of sex-specific neuron classes, and the relative proportions of major cell types were nearly identical between males and females. Glutamatergic, GABAergic, orexin-producing, and melanin-concentrating hormone-associated populations were all represented at matching ratios, with odds ratios hovering close to 1.0. Structurally, the male and female lateral hypothalamus looked like the same brain region.

But beneath that conserved architecture, the molecular machinery told a different story. The researchers focused on a curated panel of clock and circadian signaling genes: the core activators Clock, Arntl (which encodes BMAL1), and Npas2; the repressors Per1, Per2, Per3, Cry1, and Cry2; auxiliary regulators such as Nr1d1, Nr1d2, and the ROR family; and receptors for the suprachiasmatic nucleus’s signature neuropeptides, including vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), arginine vasopressin (AVP), gastrin-releasing peptide, neuromedin S, cholecystokinin, and melatonin. Differential expression testing, corrected for false discovery, uncovered 15 genes whose expression differed significantly between the sexes.

The pattern of those differences was strikingly coherent. Female-derived neurons were enriched for the vasopressin receptor Avpr1a, the melatonin receptor Mtnr1b, the clock repressors Per2 and Per3, and the auxiliary regulators Nr1d1, Nr1d2, and Rora. Male-derived neurons, by contrast, showed enrichment for the VIP receptor Vipr2, along with Nmur2 and Cckar — receptors for neuromedin and cholecystokinin signaling — and, notably, for the core positive-limb oscillator genes Clock, Npas2, and Arntl, plus Per1, Cry1, and Rorb. In other words, the two sexes appeared to weight different limbs of the same circadian feedback loop, and different neuromodulatory input channels, across shared neuronal populations.

These motifs repeated across cell types. In glutamatergic neurons, females preferentially expressed AVP and melatonin-related transcripts while males emphasized VIP and CCK receptors alongside Npas2 and Clock. In GABAergic neurons, female enrichment again centered on Nr1d2, Per2, Per3, Rora, and the melatonin receptor Mtnr1a, while males showed elevated Nmur2, Rorb, Vipr2, Per1, Cry1, Arntl, and Clock. Among the peptidergic populations, differences were subtler but still present: Npas2 was enriched in female orexin neurons, while male melanin-concentrating hormone neurons showed enrichment for Rora, Cry1, Arntl, Npas2, and Mtnr1a. The consistency across excitatory, inhibitory, and neuropeptide-specific populations suggests a coordinated, system-level shift in how temporal information is processed, rather than random noise.

The functional implications are considerable. AVP signaling from the suprachiasmatic nucleus is a principal conduit of circadian output, critical for synchrony and phase regulation, while VIP is essential for keeping pacemaker neurons firing in unison. Neuromedin S-producing neurons act as pacemakers that couple clock cells across the circadian network, and cholecystokinin pathways have been implicated in circadian adaptation under changing photoperiods. If female lateral hypothalamic neurons are transcriptionally primed to receive vasopressin-dominant signals while male neurons favor VIP, neuromedin, and CCK inputs, then the same upstream timing information from the master clock could be translated into different downstream behavioral and physiological outputs in each sex — different thresholds for arousal, feeding, stress responsiveness, and sleep-wake transitions at the same time of day.

The study also mapped sex hormone receptor expression across all lateral hypothalamic neuron types, finding that androgen receptor transcripts were most abundant, estrogen receptor 1 moderate, and estrogen receptor 2 lowest, in both sexes. Because estrogen receptor 1 functions as a ligand-activated transcription factor known to drive expression of Per2 and Clock in hypothalamic neurons, its widespread presence identifies a concrete molecular route through which circulating steroids could reshape circadian transcription in a sex-dependent manner. This aligns with earlier work showing that androgens alter the magnitude of light-induced phase shifts and that estrogen signaling stabilizes firing synchrony in the suprachiasmatic nucleus.

The authors are careful about what their data can and cannot show. Because tissue was sampled at a single circadian timepoint in gonad-intact animals without estrous-cycle staging, the findings cannot establish whether the observed differences reflect stable sex dimorphism, fluctuating endocrine state, circadian phase, or interactions among all three. Nor can a snapshot at dark-phase onset reveal oscillatory amplitude or phase relationships across the full 24-hour cycle. What the study does establish is a framework: sexual dimorphism in the lateral hypothalamus emerges not through fundamentally distinct neuronal populations but through subtle, reproducible, and coordinated shifts in molecular signaling architecture — a differential tuning of shared circuits. As circadian and sleep medicine increasingly confront sex differences in rhythm period, amplitude, and disease vulnerability, the message is clear: the same clock may tick in everyone, but males and females may hear it through different molecular ears.

Subject of Research: Sex differences in circadian clock gene and neuropeptide receptor expression in the lateral hypothalamus

Article Title: Sex-associated circadian signaling signatures in the lateral hypothalamus

Article References: Sex-associated circadian signaling signatures in the lateral hypothalamus. (n.d.). https://doi.org/10.3389/frsle.2026.1895831

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.3389/frsle.2026.1895831

Keywords: lateral hypothalamus, circadian rhythms, single-nucleus RNA sequencing, sex differences, suprachiasmatic nucleus, orexin neurons, melanin-concentrating hormone, vasoactive intestinal peptide, arginine vasopressin, clock genes, hypothalamus, sleep-wake regulation