The attention to buses is not sentimental; it is statistical. City buses are among the most intensively used vehicles in any urban fleet, running long daily shifts along corridors lined with shops, schools and apartment blocks, often within a few meters of pedestrians. Because they idle at stops, accelerate from rest hundreds of times per shift and climb gradients under full passenger load, they can dominate street-level pollution on their routes even when they represent only a small share of total traffic. Public health authorities have flagged this exposure problem for years: the World Health Organization’s 2021 global air quality guidelines sharply tightened recommended limits for fine particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide, pollutants to which dense urban populations are chronically exposed, and road transport remains a major contributor across many European cities. Atmospheric scientists have also shown that a single grossly emitting vehicle can undo the benefits of dozens of cleaner ones on the same road, which is why the technology gap between successive emissions standards matters so much for policy.

To probe that gap, the Lyon-based team ran a back-to-back comparison of two representative vehicles. The older bus met the Euro V standard and relied on exhaust gas recirculation — routing a fraction of exhaust back into the cylinders to cool combustion — together with a diesel oxidation catalyst to burn off carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons. The newer Euro VI bus added the two most powerful after-treatment systems in commercial diesel history: a wall-flow diesel particulate filter that traps solid soot in porous ceramic walls, and a selective catalytic reduction system that injects a urea solution into the exhaust stream to convert nitrogen oxides into nitrogen and water. Both buses were tested over the ISC-M3 cycle, a standardized heavy-duty dynamometer protocol, and over a representative urban route in Lyon. Portable emissions measurement systems rode on board to capture genuine driving behavior rather than laboratory fiction, while Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy delivered real-time, molecule-by-molecule quantification of the regulated gases in the exhaust stream, alongside continuous counting of solid particles.

The headline numbers are unambiguous. Under ISC conditions, the Euro VI bus emitted 0.795 grams of nitrogen oxides per kilowatt-hour of engine work, down from 5.340 grams for the Euro V — a reduction of about 85 percent that would have been unthinkable for heavy-duty diesels a decade ago. Carbon monoxide fell from 1.040 to 0.205 grams per kilowatt-hour, total hydrocarbons from 0.100 to 0.035, and ammonia — a pollutant forged through nitrogen chemistry in the engine and exhaust after-treatment — collapsed from 0.291 to 0.014 grams per kilowatt-hour, a 95 percent cut. The solid particle number dropped from 6.19 × 10¹² to 5.02 × 10¹¹ particles per kilowatt-hour, roughly a twelvefold reduction. Crucially, the team reports that the same trends held during genuine urban operation in Lyon, suggesting the gains are not a laboratory artifact but a property of the machines themselves, robust to the stop-and-go rhythm of real city service.

Those figures are a direct portrait of the after-treatment hardware at work. Exhaust gas recirculation on the older bus dilutes the intake air with inert combustion products, lowering peak flame temperatures and suppressing the thermal formation of nitrogen oxides, at the cost of some combustion efficiency. The diesel oxidation catalyst on both buses converts carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons into carbon dioxide and water. The Euro VI’s particulate filter physically sieves soot agglomerates out of the exhaust, which explains the order-of-magnitude drop in particle count, while its selective catalytic reduction system relies on ammonia — generated on board by evaporating and decomposing a urea solution — to reduce nitrogen oxides over a catalyst tuned for selectivity toward molecular nitrogen. The small residual ammonia emissions from the newer bus represent so-called ammonia slip, the fraction of reductant that passes through the catalyst unreacted. Even with near-total soot filtration, some ultrafine particles survive the barrier, keeping particle number emissions well above zero.

But the regulated pollutants tell only half the story, and the study’s most striking results come from its chemical forensics. The researchers collected exhaust condensate directly at the tailpipes of both buses and isolated the water-soluble organic aerosol fraction — the portion of the organic emissions that dissolves into the humid droplets and particles of the urban atmosphere. That fraction was then analyzed offline using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to Orbitrap mass spectrometry, a technique that traps ions in an electrostatic field and measures their oscillation frequencies with resolving power high enough to assign molecular formulas to thousands of individual compounds in a single sample. By running the analysis in both positive and negative electrospray ionization modes, the team could interrogate complementary chemical families: the positive mode tends to favor protonated, nitrogen-bearing species, while the negative mode is more sensitive to acidic, oxygenated and sulfur-containing molecules that would otherwise evade detection.

What emerged from that molecular census is sobering. Despite their radically different after-treatment systems, both buses emitted complex mixtures of intermediate-volatility and semi-volatile organic compounds — a class of chemicals that occupies the volatility gap between conventional vapors and airborne particles. These compounds leave the tailpipe largely as gases but are sufficiently large and reactive that atmospheric oxidants, chiefly hydroxyl radicals, can bolt oxygen- and nitrogen-containing functional groups onto their carbon skeletons, lowering their volatility until they condense onto existing particles. The result is secondary organic aerosol, a major component of fine particulate matter that is manufactured in the air rather than emitted directly. Both exhausts contained nitrogen- and sulfur-bearing organic species, a chemical fingerprint of the interplay between fuel sulfur compounds, combustion nitrogen chemistry and partial oxidation, and the study found that these species carry a high potential for secondary organic aerosol formation. A growing body of literature suggests that intermediate-volatility compounds from road vehicles can rival or exceed their more volatile cousins as sources of urban secondary aerosol.

The regulatory implications are uncomfortable. European emissions standards are built around a short list of species — nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, total hydrocarbons, particle number and mass — while the vast, unresolved complex mixture of intermediate- and semi-volatile organics passes essentially unmeasured through type approval. Ammonia, despite mounting evidence that vehicles are an underappreciated source of the gas in densely populated areas, has received far less regulatory attention than nitrogen oxides. Because secondary organic aerosol forms downstream of the tailpipe, emission inventories built on regulated species alone can systematically underestimate the contribution of traffic to urban fine particulate pollution, and air quality models that omit these precursors will misjudge how much cleaner a city’s air can actually become. The authors argue that the magnitude of the unregulated emissions they documented underscores the need for emission controls that explicitly target these pollutants, rather than assuming that cutting regulated species will automatically clean up the atmospheric chemistry that follows.

For city governments weighing fleet decisions, the study offers both reassurance and a warning. The Euro VI bus performed impressively across regulated metrics under genuine urban driving, supporting the case that modern diesel buses — and retrofits pairing particulate filters with selective catalytic reduction, whose real-world benefits earlier fleet studies have demonstrated — can deliver immediate exposure reductions while cities wait for zero-emission alternatives. With electric and hydrogen buses still constrained by cost and charging infrastructure, and diesel vehicles expected to remain on the road for decades, the after-treatment generation gap matters: buses built to pre-Euro VI standards emit nitrogen oxides at rates nearly seven times those of the newest vehicles, and the Lyon data now quantify that difference with unusual molecular detail. But the research also suggests that electrification targets, judged by today’s regulated metrics alone, may not fully deliver the secondary-aerosol reductions that air quality models promise, because the organic precursors responsible have never been part of the compliance calculus.

The findings appear in Environmental Science and Pollution Research, in a paper led by Amira Jabbari-Hichri of IRCELYON, the Institute for Research on Catalysis and the Environment in Lyon, with corresponding author Christian George and colleagues spanning CNRS, Université Lyon 1 and CRMT. The work was carried out under the EASVOLEE project, funded by the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 101095457, and handled by responsible editor Philippe Garrigues. Its larger message reaches far beyond the depot gates: the cleanest tailpipes the diesel industry has ever fielded have tamed the poisons regulators have watched for half a century, yet the invisible molecular cargo that seeds urban smog flows on, largely untouched by law. Closing that gap will require the next generation of emission standards to be written not just in grams per kilowatt-hour of nitrogen oxides, but in the detailed chemical language that instruments like the Orbitrap are finally able to read.

Isoprene’s role in the atmosphere is immense due to its sheer volume, released primarily by trees and plants, influencing tropospheric chemistry in ways that impact human health and global temperature regulation. The oxidation of isoprene governs the formation of secondary organic aerosols and ozone, crucial agents in urban smog formation and greenhouse gas chemistry. Despite its importance, the detailed molecular mechanisms—especially surrounding the hydrogen-abstraction events—have been challenging to characterize experimentally and theoretically until now.

The innovative “radical-omics” technique deployed by the researchers harnesses high-throughput detection and comprehensive mapping of radical species generated during isoprene oxidation. This novel approach combines mass spectrometry with advanced computational modeling to capture transient intermediates and elucidate their reaction pathways with unprecedented resolution. The researchers were able to track the formation and evolution of key hydroxyl and peroxy radical species that emerge when isoprene undergoes atmospheric oxidation.

One of the key revelations of this study is the identification of specific radical intermediates that act as critical branching points in the hydrogen-abstraction sequence. Prior models treated these steps as somewhat generic, underspecified reactions within atmospheric simulations. By pinpointing these species and their lifetimes, the team offers a refined kinetic framework that vastly improves the predictability of isoprene’s oxidation fate, which has strong implications for climate models and pollution forecasting.

Furthermore, the research establishes the energetic preferences that dictate whether hydrogen abstraction proceeds via direct OH radical attack or via alternate radical-mediated pathways. The radicals generated show selective affinity for various hydrogen sites on the isoprene molecule, a factor that defines the downstream distribution of oxidation products. These subtle nuances influence not just the chemical identity of the byproducts, but also the physical properties of resulting aerosols.

This level of mechanistic insight derived from radical-omics elevates our understanding beyond traditional bulk analyses, opening avenues for precise atmospheric intervention strategies. By knowing exactly how and when isoprene radicals form and evolve, scientists can better predict periods of high ozone production or aerosol formation, which can guide public health advisories and emissions regulations.

The environmental implications are profound. With climate change driving shifts in global vegetation patterns and thus biogenic emissions, understanding the oxidation pathways of isoprene helps model future atmospheric scenarios more reliably. This research could yield predictive tools that inform policymakers and urban planners about how emerging ecological shifts will influence urban air quality and regional climate feedback loops.

On a technical level, the study demonstrates sophisticated integration of experimental and theoretical chemistry. The team employed time-resolved mass spectrometry to catch radicals with lifetimes on the order of milliseconds, coupled with quantum chemical calculations to map potential reaction energy surfaces. This dual strategy allowed for the cross-validation of data, ensuring that the kinetically relevant pathways were those leading to observed atmospheric products.

Moreover, radical-omics, as a concept, sets a precedent for atmospheric chemistry by emphasizing comprehensive radical profiling rather than focusing on end products alone. This paradigm shift enables the deconvolution of extremely complex reaction networks, such as those involving volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere, providing clarity about transient reaction intermediates that dictate long-term chemical outcomes.

The researchers also highlight that existing atmospheric chemical transport models often oversimplify isoprene oxidation kinetics because of a scarcity of detailed radical formation data. Their findings suggest that incorporating the hydrogen-abstraction pathways characterized here will enhance the accuracy of these models. Improved model fidelity is essential for simulating pollutant dispersal, radiation balance alterations, and feedback effects relevant to climate interventions.

While the exact atmospheric conditions under which these pathways dominate remain to be explored further, this work lays a sturdy foundation for future field-based validation experiments. Deploying portable radical-omics instrumentation in situ will enable the direct observation of isoprene radical chemistry under diverse environmental conditions, which will be the next frontier for atmospheric chemists.

In conclusion, Song and colleagues’ research exemplifies how cutting-edge analytical methods can transform our grasp of fundamental environmental processes. Their detailed map of isoprene oxidation’s hydrogen-abstraction radical sequences provides critical data to untangle the complex atmospheric web that governs climate and air quality. This advancement not only invigorates basic scientific knowledge but also fosters practical applications in environmental monitoring and policy formulation.

The radical-omics approach may soon extend beyond isoprene to other volatile organic compounds that shape atmospheric chemistry, opening new vistas for understanding and mitigating air pollution and climate change. This intersection of advanced detection, computational rigor, and environmental relevance highlights the innovative spirit driving the next era of atmospheric science.

As urban centers worldwide grapple with pollution challenges and as climate unpredictability intensifies, research such as this offers hope. By decoding the molecular choreography of naturally emitted compounds like isoprene, scientists equip society with the intelligence needed to design informed, effective strategies to safeguard the planet’s atmosphere.

The publication of these findings in Nature Communications underscores their significance and is poised to inspire a wave of follow-up studies. In an era when atmospheric chemistry is vital to multiple disciplines—from public health to policy—the ability to characterize complex reaction networks with precision is transformative.

Looking ahead, the integration of radical-omics with global atmospheric monitoring infrastructure promises to revolutionize how the scientific community assesses air quality dynamics in real time. This could lead to adaptive urban management systems that react dynamically to chemical shifts in the atmosphere, optimizing human and ecological health outcomes.

The new understanding of the hydrogen-abstraction pathway of isoprene oxidation thus represents a pivotal moment in atmospheric science. It equips researchers with a powerful tool and a rich dataset, enabling them to confront the grand challenges of air pollution and climate change with greater confidence and clarity than ever before. Such innovation illuminates the path to a cleaner, healthier atmosphere in an increasingly complex world.

Subject of Research: Atmospheric chemistry, specifically the hydrogen-abstraction pathway in isoprene oxidation.

Article Title: Radical-omics reveals the hydrogen-abstraction pathway of isoprene oxidation.

Article References:
Song, H., Cui, H., Dong, H. et al. Radical-omics reveals the hydrogen-abstraction pathway of isoprene oxidation. Nat Commun (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-74966-1

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Isoprene, a volatile organic compound emitted predominantly by vegetation, plays a significant role in atmospheric chemistry. When it reacts with tropospheric ozone, a series of complex oxidation processes ensue, generating Criegee intermediates as fleeting molecular entities. Despite their ephemeral lifetimes, these intermediates participate in the formation of secondary organic aerosols and contribute substantially to the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere. Prior to this study, evidence for Criegee intermediates in the ozonolysis of isoprene was indirect, inferred primarily through computational modeling and secondary product analysis. The current research breakthrough now allows scientists to directly observe and quantify these species in situ, offering unrivaled insight into their formation and reaction kinetics.

At the heart of their experimental approach is the use of advanced spectroscopic techniques coupled with a highly sensitive chemical ionization mass spectrometer. The research team employed a flow reactor system optimized to simulate atmospheric conditions realistically while stabilizing Criegee intermediates long enough for detection. By tuning the experimental parameters meticulously, they successfully captured the elusive intermediates immediately following the reaction of isoprene with ozone. This direct measurement capability is a triumph of both instrumentation finesse and experimental design, shedding light on reaction pathways that were previously speculative.

Understanding Criegee intermediates is crucial because they serve as atmospheric oxidants that interact with sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides, and other trace gases, thereby influencing the formation of particulate matter and cloud condensation nuclei. The study reveals new mechanistic details about how these intermediates form and decay, providing valuable constraints on atmospheric models that predict air pollution and climate dynamics. The accurate quantification of these intermediates under different conditions marks a significant improvement in our ability to trace and predict the fate of numerous volatile organic compounds emitted globally.

One of the most striking outcomes of the research lies in the discovery of different isomeric forms of Criegee intermediates generated from isoprene ozonolysis, highlighting the complexity inherent in natural atmospheric chemistry. These isomers exhibit variations in stability and reactivity, and their distinct lifetimes dictate the paths of subsequent chemical reactions impacting air quality. Identifying and quantifying these isomers paves the way for developing more precise atmospheric reaction schemes and ultimately improving climate models’ predictive accuracy.

The implications of these findings extend far beyond the laboratory environment. By unraveling the precise chemistry of isoprene ozonolysis, this research enhances our understanding of the sources and sinks of atmospheric oxidants. This is particularly important in forested regions where isoprene emissions are high and nighttime chemistry plays a vital role in pollutant transformation. The new data allow for refined estimations of oxidative budgets and pollutant lifetimes, which are integral to formulating effective air quality management policies globally.

Innovative methodologies used in this study also have potential applications in monitoring atmospheric chemistry in real time. The high sensitivity and temporal resolution achieved for detecting Criegee intermediates can be adapted to field measurements, helping scientists track pollutant transformations during dynamic atmospheric episodes like wildfires and urban pollution spikes. As such, this research is poised to redefine observational strategies in atmospheric science, bridging gaps between laboratory kinetics and real-world phenomena.

Moreover, the research illuminates the role Criegee intermediates play in secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation, a major component of atmospheric particulate matter with direct implications on human health and climate forcing. By quantifying the intermediates’ formation and subsequent reactions, the study provides crucial data for modeling SOA yields from isoprene oxidation, a topic of intense interest due to the global prevalence of biogenic volatile organic compounds.

The team also addressed longstanding questions about the fate of stabilized Criegee intermediates (sCIs), whose chemistry had been difficult to incorporate into atmospheric models due to insufficient empirical data. Their measurements reveal the branching ratios and reaction kinetics of sCIs in reactions with atmospheric constituents, thereby refining the understanding of their lifetimes and environmental impacts. This leap forward offers a valuable toolkit for atmospheric chemists to better simulate pollutant behaviors and predict climate feedback mechanisms.

Beyond atmospheric science, the implications of detecting and understanding Criegee intermediates touch on fields such as environmental engineering and policy. Accurate knowledge of atmospheric oxidation processes is essential in designing emission control strategies and evaluating future climate scenarios. By bringing direct experimental evidence to theoretical constructs, this study enriches the foundational chemical knowledge that underpins regulatory frameworks aimed at mitigating air pollution and its health effects.

The researchers emphasize the collaborative nature and multidisciplinary approach of the project, integrating experimental techniques, theoretical calculations, and atmospheric modeling. Such synergy proved indispensable in surmounting the challenge of capturing highly reactive intermediates and interpreting the complex data obtained. This cross-disciplinary effort is a testament to the evolving nature of atmospheric chemistry research, where converging expertise drives transformative discoveries.

Looking ahead, the ability to detect Criegee intermediates opens new frontiers in studying other biogenic and anthropogenic volatile organic compounds undergoing ozonolysis. Expansion of this technique to different systems could illuminate undiscovered reaction mechanisms and intermediate species, offering a more comprehensive picture of atmospheric oxidation chemistry. The approach could also inspire investigations into the roles of Criegee intermediates in ozone depletion and pollutant formation in various environmental contexts.

This landmark study marks a milestone in the history of atmospheric chemistry by providing concrete, measurable data on chemical species previously deemed too transient to observe directly. Its impact will resonate across the scientific community, enabling refined predictive models, informed environmental policies, and enhanced protection against the adverse effects of air pollution and climate change. The prospect of harnessing such insights demonstrates the profound value of fundamental scientific inquiry into the molecules that shape our atmosphere and life on Earth.

In summary, the direct measurement of Criegee intermediates during isoprene ozonolysis represents a major scientific breakthrough with broad implications for understanding atmospheric chemistry and its effects on climate and air quality. The work of Yang et al. not only challenges prior assumptions but also equips the scientific community with unprecedented tools to explore the Earth’s atmosphere at a molecular level. As research continues in this exciting direction, our ability to predict and mitigate environmental problems will undoubtedly be enhanced by this new knowledge frontier.

Subject of Research: Atmospheric chemistry; direct detection of Criegee intermediates generated during the ozonolysis of isoprene.

Article Title: Direct measurement of Criegee intermediates in isoprene ozonolysis.

Article References: Yang, L., Hatem, K., Campos-Pineda, M. et al. Direct measurement of Criegee intermediates in isoprene ozonolysis. Nat Commun (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-73307-6

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The formation of HOMs is intertwined with the oxidation processes of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere. These oxidation reactions proceed through multiple steps, often initiated by atmospheric oxidants such as hydroxyl radicals (OH), nitrate radicals (NO3), and ozone (O3). Upon oxidation, VOCs undergo autoxidation, generating molecules with a high degree of oxygenation that can nucleate or condense, contributing significantly to SOA growth. However, the yields of HOMs vary widely across different atmospheric conditions, a puzzle that this study intrigues to solve.

Yang and colleagues embarked on a meticulous exploration combining laboratory experiments, comprehensive theoretical modeling, and ambient field measurements to isolate the key factors influencing HOM yields. The research utilized state-of-the-art mass spectrometry techniques to capture real-time signatures of HOM formation pathways. These techniques provided new granular insights into how substituent groups on VOC precursors and varying environmental parameters modulate HOM generation efficiency.

A central revelation from the study is the identification of previously underappreciated intramolecular hydrogen shifts during autoxidation, a process critical to the sequential addition of oxygen atoms. These hydrogen shifts govern the formation of peroxy radicals – essential intermediates that dictate the ultimate molecular oxygen content and subsequent particle growth potential. By mapping these intricate reaction networks, the authors offer a master key to understanding why certain VOC precursors yield abundant HOMs while others, seemingly similar, do not.

Furthermore, the work elucidates how ambient temperature and relative humidity intricately influence these autoxidation mechanisms. At elevated temperatures, for instance, competing thermal decomposition pathways can attenuate HOM yields, whereas humidity modulates radical lifetimes and alters the balance between competing oxidants. These findings help reconcile previously contradictory observations from field campaigns under diverse climatological conditions worldwide.

One of the study’s outstanding contributions lies in the refined kinetic models constructed to simulate autoxidation pathways. These models integrate newly discovered reaction intermediates and branching ratios, enabling remarkably accurate predictions of HOM yields across varied atmospheric scenarios. Crucially, these mechanistic models surpass older parameterizations by providing more globally relevant estimations of SOA precursor potentials, crucial for improving climate model accuracy.

The research also sheds light on the interplay between anthropogenic emissions and natural VOCs in shaping HOM abundance. The team’s data suggest that urban pollution often suppresses HOM formation via scavenging reactions, while pristine environments rich in biogenic VOCs foster prolific HOM production. This differential impact underscores the complex, location-dependent nature of particle formation and its multifaceted feedback on human health and climate forcing.

In the context of air quality management, understanding HOM dynamics is pivotal. These molecules rapidly contribute to particulate matter concentration, which is a major concern for respiratory and cardiovascular health. The mechanistic insights provided by Yang and colleagues pave the way for targeted mitigation strategies, such as controlling specific VOC emissions or modulating conditions that favor less reactive atmospheric chemistry, ultimately contributing to cleaner air policies.

Beyond atmospheric chemistry, the study’s findings have broader ramifications in environmental science. Because HOMs influence cloud condensation nuclei availability, they indirectly affect cloud formation processes and, subsequently, weather patterns and hydrological cycles. These connections create an intricate web where microscopic chemical transformations cascade into macroscopic climate outcomes, highlighting the profound relevance of such fundamental research.

The painstaking laboratory work that underpins this publication included meticulously designed oxidation chambers employing synthetic VOCs under tightly controlled environmental variables. This precision enabled isolating single reaction variables, disentangling complex atmospheric processes into understandable mechanistic steps. This experimental rigor strengthens the confidence in the authors’ proposed reaction pathways and their applicability.

On the theoretical front, the investigators used quantum chemical calculations combined with master equation modeling to chart the energy landscapes of intermediate species. These computational insights, coupled with experimental verification, establish a robust foundation for the proposed reaction sequences and rate constants. The synergy between theory and experiment represents a gold standard in mechanistic chemical research.

Also noteworthy is the study’s foresight in aligning their mechanistic framework with emerging measurement technologies. The team advocates for integrating their models with high-resolution field instruments like chemical ionization mass spectrometers capable of detecting short-lived intermediates. Such integrated approaches will enable atmospheric chemists to track HOM formation in situ with unprecedented detail, further refining model inputs over time.

Despite these advances, the authors acknowledge that atmospheric variability and the sheer diversity of VOC precursors imply ongoing challenges. Future research must extend these mechanistic insights across a broader array of VOC classes, including aromatic and oxygenated hydrocarbons. Such expansion is essential to fully capture the complexity of real-world atmospheric chemistry and improve predictive models used by policymakers and climate scientists.

In conclusion, the groundbreaking work by Yang et al. beautifully illustrates the power of combining multidisciplinary approaches—laboratory experiments, theoretical modeling, and field observations—to demystify complex atmospheric phenomena. Their elucidation of the mechanisms driving varying HOM yields marks a pivotal step toward enhancing our predictive abilities regarding aerosol formation and its climatic and health impacts, a quest of monumental importance in our changing world.

Subject of Research: Mechanistic understanding of the varying yields of highly oxygenated organic molecules in atmospheric chemistry.

Article Title: A mechanistic understanding of the varying yields of highly oxygenated organic molecules.

Article References:
Yang, L., Nie, W., Yan, C. et al. A mechanistic understanding of the varying yields of highly oxygenated organic molecules. Nat Commun (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-67007-w

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