The review builds on the concept of the microbiota-gut-brain axis, a bidirectional communication network linking the gastrointestinal tract with the central nervous system through neural, endocrine, immune, and metabolic pathways. Gut-derived signals can reach the brain via vagal afferents, circulating immune mediators, microbial metabolites, and gut hormones, while autonomic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal signaling can in turn modify intestinal motility, barrier function, and microbial composition. Microbial products such as short-chain fatty acids, tryptophan derivatives, and lipopolysaccharide are known to influence blood-brain barrier homeostasis, microglial activity, immune-cell differentiation, and epigenetic regulation. Much of this mechanistic evidence, however, comes from germ-free animals and non-cancerous neurological models, and its direct relevance to human glioblastoma remains incompletely established.

The tumor microenvironment of glioblastoma provides a plausible target for such systemic signals. The tumor is dominated by myeloid cells, particularly tumor-associated macrophages that arise from both resident microglia and infiltrating monocytes. Single-cell studies show these populations occupy distinct spatial niches and transcriptional states, rendering the conventional M1/M2 classification overly simplistic. Glioma cells recruit and shape myeloid cells through mediators including colony-stimulating factor 1, CCL2, transforming growth factor-beta, and interleukin-10, while regulatory T cells and exhausted T cells expressing PD-1, TIM-3, LAG-3, and CTLA-4 further entrench immune suppression. Immune dysfunction also extends beyond the tumor itself: treatment-naive patients show sequestration of naive T cells in the bone marrow, impairing T-cell egress and helping explain why checkpoint blockade alone has failed in this disease.

Against this backdrop, experimental evidence from mouse models has begun to suggest that gut microbes can indeed modulate glioma-associated immunity. In one of the earliest glioma-specific studies, chronic antibiotic exposure in mice bearing intracranial GL261 tumors altered intestinal bacterial composition, reduced cytotoxic natural-killer-cell subsets, modified microglial inflammatory proteins, and was accompanied by accelerated tumor growth. A subsequent orthotopic model showed that antibiotic-induced dysbiosis reduced short-chain fatty acid concentrations in blood and tumor tissue and sped tumor progression, while oral supplementation with these metabolites increased glycolytic activity in tumor-associated macrophages and improved outcomes. More strikingly, fecal microbiota transfer experiments demonstrated that mice receiving microbiota from patients with high-grade glioma developed faster-growing tumors than mice receiving microbiota from healthy donors, with bacterial genera such as Eisenbergiella and Merdimonas enriched in the recipients.

Metabolite signaling sits at the heart of these mechanisms, but the review stresses a critical caveat: a metabolite relevant to glioblastoma is not necessarily microbiota-derived. Short-chain fatty acids such as butyrate act through G-protein-coupled receptors and epigenetic mechanisms, inhibiting histone deacetylases and influencing regulatory T-cell differentiation. Sodium butyrate has reduced proliferation and promoted apoptosis in human glioma cell lines, and in one mouse study it increased PD-L1 expression and enhanced the efficacy of anti-PD-1 therapy. Yet the millimolar concentrations used in vitro do not demonstrate that microbiota-derived butyrate reaches human glioblastoma tissue at comparable levels. Similarly, the kynurenine pathway engages the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, but in glioblastoma the strongest evidence points to kynurenine produced by tumor cells themselves rather than by gut microbes. A recent study also showed that tumor-cell-derived spermidine suppressed CD8-positive T-cell activity and that blocking its synthesis prolonged survival in mice, again without any established microbial contribution.

Perhaps the most provocative findings concern microbial material detected within human brain tumors themselves. A prospective multi-institutional study of 243 samples from 221 patients combined RNA-based fluorescence in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, spatial imaging, sequencing, and culturomics, detecting bacterial 16S rRNA and lipopolysaccharide signals in subsets of glioma and metastatic samples, including within tumor, immune, and stromal cells. Signals assigned to genera including Fusobacterium, Prevotella, and Veillonella partially overlapped with matched oral or gut communities. Separately, an immunopeptidomic analysis of tumors from nineteen patients identified 344 distinct bacteria-associated peptides bound to HLA class II molecules, and some of these peptides were recognized by tumor-infiltrating T cells, including a CD4-positive T-cell clone that cross-recognized both a mutated glioblastoma antigen and several microbial peptides.

These discoveries come with heavy methodological caveats. Brain tumors contain extremely low microbial biomass, making sequencing studies vulnerable to reagent contamination, environmental DNA, and computational misclassification. The 2024 retraction of a prominent TCGA-based cancer microbial-signature study underscored the danger. Standard culture failed to recover a readily cultivable bacterial community from the prospective brain-tumor samples, the signals were sparse and heterogeneous, and no association with clinical outcome was established. The review therefore recommends reserving the terms microbiota and microbiome for settings where a diverse, biologically active community is supported by adequate evidence, and instead using phrases like microbial signals or bacterial elements until viability, replication, and function are demonstrated. Rigorous negative controls, orthogonal spatial validation, and viability assessment are deemed essential before any claim of stable intratumoral colonization can stand.

On the translational front, the review finds everything still at the earliest stage. No gut- or tumor-derived microbial biomarker has been independently validated for glioblastoma diagnosis, prognosis, or treatment selection, and current prospective studies such as THERABIOME-GBM remain observational. Fecal microbiota transplantation has shown clinical proof of principle in melanoma, where it can promote responses to checkpoint inhibitors, but no therapeutic trial exists in glioblastoma, and safety concerns are serious: FMT has transmitted multidrug-resistant organisms to immunocompromised recipients, including a fatal infection. Probiotic combinations of Bifidobacterium lactis and Lactobacillus plantarum reduced tumor volume in mice, and even dietary manipulations such as a short-term high-glucose drink or aspartame exposure altered tumor biology in animal models, but the authors explicitly caution that none of these findings justifies recommending any microbiome-directed intervention to patients.

Looking ahead, the review identifies several promising but speculative directions. One is the intersection between microbiota-associated inflammation and the circadian-glymphatic-melatonergic network, where experimental sleep-restriction data suggest melatonin can preserve glymphatic function, and a proposed but unproven pathway links aryl hydrocarbon receptor activity to melatonin metabolism and N-acetylserotonin signaling through the TrkB receptor. Another is bacteriophage-based modulation, which in colorectal cancer models has successfully targeted Fusobacterium nucleatum to augment chemotherapy, though no viable bacterial driver has been validated in glioblastoma and delivery across the blood-brain barrier remains unsolved. The authors conclude that progress will depend on source attribution, orthogonal validation, perturbation-and-rescue experiments, longitudinal human sampling, and replication across centers. The key distinction, they argue, is between a microbiota-associated signal and a clinically established mechanism, and only evidence that a defined microbial feature is reproducible, mechanistically linked to tumor or immune phenotypes, and safely modifiable will allow microbiota research to contribute meaningfully to precision neuro-oncology.

Subject of Research: The role of the gut microbiome and microbial metabolites in glioblastoma tumor-immune interactions and translational oncology

Article Title: The Microbiome in Glioblastoma: Mechanisms, Tumor–Immune Interactions, and Translational Perspectives

Article References: AlRamadneh, T. N., Jyothi‐S, R., Priyadarshini‐Nayak, P., Nanda, A., Al‐Hasnaawei, S., Bhatt, A., Singh‐Chauhan, A., Singla, S., & Mishra, M. K. (2026). The Microbiome in Glioblastoma: Mechanisms, Tumor–Immune Interactions, and Translational Perspectives. MicrobiologyOpen, 15(5), Article e70431. https://doi.org/10.1002/mbo3.70431

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.70431

Keywords: glioblastoma, gut microbiome, microbiota-gut-brain axis, tumor microenvironment, short-chain fatty acids, kynurenine, aryl hydrocarbon receptor, tumor-associated macrophages, immune checkpoint inhibitors, fecal microbiota transplantation, intratumoral bacteria, HLA peptides