Nonylphenol is no obscure threat. It is the primary degradation product of nonylphenol polyethoxylates, nonionic surfactants used extensively in industrial, commercial, and domestic products, and roughly sixty percent of manufactured nonylphenol enters water bodies through wastewater effluent, agricultural runoff, and atmospheric deposition. The European Union classifies it as a priority hazardous substance, and monitoring data show surface water concentrations ranging from nanograms to tens of micrograms per liter across Australia, China, and the United States. Waters receiving sewage treatment plant effluent have registered levels as high as 644 micrograms per liter, and untreated wastewater can contain up to 1,350 micrograms per liter. Its endocrine-disrupting effects and broad toxicity to aquatic organisms make it an escalating global concern.

Microalgae sit squarely in the path of this contamination. As primary producers anchoring aquatic food webs, they are particularly vulnerable: prior toxicological work has shown that nonylphenol at 100 to 1,000 micrograms per liter suppresses the growth of common species such as Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus by nearly a quarter to more than half. At 500 micrograms per liter, the pollutant silences photosynthesis-related genes by over eighty percent, drains chlorophyll reserves, impairs the efficiency of photosystem II, and triggers oxidative damage marked by sharply elevated antioxidant enzyme activity and lipid peroxidation. Electron microscopy of exposed cells reveals thylakoid membrane deformation, plasmolysis, and lipid droplet formation. Damage at this base of the food web risks bottom-up cascades that destabilize entire ecosystems.

Yet ecotoxicology has long treated algae as solitary organisms, testing axenic cultures in isolation while ignoring the microbiome that accompanies them in nature. The research team, led by Qilu Cheng and colleagues, challenged that convention using Dictyosphaerium sp., a microalga previously isolated from wastewater that tolerates nonylphenol up to 8 milligrams per liter, the highest tolerance reported among microalgae. By comparing non-axenic cultures, which retain their native phycosphere microbes, with axenic cultures stripped of bacteria through antibiotic treatment, the researchers could isolate the microbiome’s contribution. The difference was striking. Under the highest tested concentration of 0.9 milligrams per liter, growth inhibition in non-axenic cultures fell to 15.7 percent by day eight, while axenic cultures suffered 31.9 percent inhibition, nearly double the damage.

Sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene revealed that nonylphenol exposure restructured the phycosphere community in a dose- and time-dependent manner. While alpha diversity remained stable, beta diversity analyses showed the high-dose community progressively diverging from controls, confirmed by PERMANOVA with an R-squared of 0.94. The pollutant consistently enriched genera known as beneficial phycosphere colonizers, including Pseudomonas, Methylophilus, Blastomonas, rhizobial taxa, and Brevundimonas, while tolerant-but-costly contributors such as Porphyrobacter and Sphingomonas declined. Functional prediction via PICRUSt exposed a metabolic trade-off: pathways for the bacteria’s own amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism, cell growth, and replication were suppressed, while functions tied to algae-bacteria mutualism, including cell motility, signal transduction, membrane transport, and vitamin metabolism, were enhanced. Co-occurrence networks grew denser and more competitive, mirroring patterns seen in plant rhizospheres under drought and salt stress.

To move from correlation to mechanism, the team isolated sixteen bacterial strains from nonylphenol-exposed cultures and co-cultured each with axenic algae. Twelve strains promoted algal growth under stress, but the standout was Brevundimonas sp. D-1, which shifted from a mild antagonist in clean conditions, likely through resource competition, to a powerful ally under pollution, boosting algal biomass by 39.9 percent at a 0.5 percent inoculum. This stress-mediated switch from inhibition to facilitation supports the stress gradient hypothesis, in which harsh conditions transform competitive microbial relationships into cooperative ones.

The physiological evidence for D-1’s protection was comprehensive. Co-cultured algae under nonylphenol stress produced 1.40-fold more chlorophyll a, 1.44-fold more chlorophyll b, and 1.31-fold more carotenoids than axenic controls. The pollutant alone drove reactive oxygen species up by 71.6 percent, malondialdehyde by 199.6 percent, and superoxide dismutase by 127.4 percent; D-1 co-culture cut these markers by up to 29.3, 46.8, and 42.9 percent respectively. Transmission electron microscopy showed that while stressed axenic algae developed thickened cell walls, plasmolysis, chloroplast shrinkage, and thylakoid degradation, bacteria-supported cells retained smoother walls, larger pyrenoids, and organized thylakoid membranes.

The bacterium also altered the algal extracellular polymeric substances, the protective matrix coating the cells, and supercharged pollutant removal. Nonylphenol normally pushes algae to overproduce polysaccharide-rich EPS as a defense, but D-1 co-culture eased this costly response, redirecting resources toward growth. Fluorescence spectroscopy suggested that aromatic EPS components bind nonylphenol molecules, reducing their bioavailability. Most strikingly, co-cultures removed 23.1 to 28.8 percent more nonylphenol than axenic algae over four days. Live and heat-killed D-1 cells removed the pollutant equally well, indicating a metabolism-independent bioadsorption mechanism involving cell wall functional groups rather than enzymatic degradation, which sequesters the bioavailable pollutant pool before it can enter algal cells.

Transcriptomics tied the story together at the gene level. Co-culture with D-1 reduced stress-responsive differentially expressed genes by 71.5 percent, shifting the algal expression profile toward a low-stress state. Genes for carbon fixation, amino acid biosynthesis, and energy production were enriched, while the defensive surge of superoxide dismutase genes and light-harvesting upregulation seen in axenic algae was absent. Suppressed genes in glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation dropped from 37 to just 4, and ribosomal biogenesis genes recovered toward normal protein synthesis. The researchers propose that D-1 shifts from antagonist to cooperative partner under pollution, with the alga even upregulating a compensatory C4-type carbon concentrating pathway, possibly offsetting pollutant damage to its pyrenoid-based system. The authors caution that these findings come from a simplified binary system, and that environmental fluctuations could modulate the partnership’s stability. Even so, the work points toward a practical future: deliberately engineered algal-bacterial consortia, seeded with protective taxa like Brevundimonas, could become powerful tools for bioremediating endocrine-disrupting chemicals from contaminated waters worldwide.

Subject of Research: Phycosphere microbiome remodeling and bacterial partnership enhancing microalgal tolerance to the endocrine-disrupting pollutant nonylphenol

Article Title: Phycosphere microbiome remodeling and Brevundimonas partnership establishment enhance microalgal nonylphenol tolerance

Article References: Cheng, Q., Hong, L., Hui, C., Xu, L., Liu, Y., Wang, F., Wang, Q., Ma, J., & Lin, H. (2026). Phycosphere microbiome remodeling and Brevundimonas partnership establishment enhance microalgal nonylphenol tolerance. Journal of Advanced Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2026.10.006

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2026.10.006

Keywords: phycosphere, microbiome, microalgae, nonylphenol, Brevundimonas, bioremediation, endocrine disruptor, oxidative stress, transcriptomics, extracellular polymeric substances, algal-bacterial interaction, water pollution