The study, published in Frontiers in Psychology, was led by Barbara Le Roy from the Human Adaptation Institute in Marseille, with Antoine Del Cul of Hôpital La Pitié-Salpêtrière in Paris, Marion Trousselard of the French Armed Forces Biomedical Research Institute, and Céline Ramdani, the corresponding author based at the same institute in Toulon. Their starting point is a long-standing idea in neuroscience: according to Antonio Damasio’s account, emotions emerge through the perception of the body in a bottom-up process, and they arise from an interaction between ascending sensory and visceral signals and top-down expectations, goals, and internal models within circuits linking the amygdala, insula, cingulate cortex, and prefrontal cortex. As Bechara and Damasio put it, emotions are a major factor in the interaction between environmental conditions and human decision processes.

The authors draw on the emotion-imbued choice model, which holds that emotions permeate decision-making at several levels, including the emotion felt at the moment of a decision and the emotion expected to follow it. These influences can be detrimental or advantageous. When emotions are out of synchronization with the situation and effectively take over, they can interfere with reasoning and produce inappropriate behavior. The researchers argue that just as cognitive systems perpetually monitor actions and implement adaptive measures to improve performance and avoid errors, emotional control systems should continuously monitor emotional states to prevent erroneous decisions and undesirable behaviors. They treat the emotion felt and the control of that emotion as two distinct processes, in the same way that motor action and the control of action are distinct.

The heart of the new framework is a distinction between online and offline emotion control. Online control operates while an emotion is unfolding: it monitors and regulates the ongoing emotion as it is felt at the moment of a decision. Offline control comes into play after the fact, when a regulation strategy has failed to trigger appropriate behavior and must be abandoned in favor of an alternative. The authors integrate Koch’s model of emotion control with the Flexible Emotion Control Theory proposed by Roelofs and colleagues, a neurocognitive theory holding that effective emotion regulation depends on the capacity to rapidly switch between alternative strategies while evaluating the current strategy and unchosen counterfactual options, which is especially important when demands are changing and time pressure is high.

Within this model, the researchers nominate specific measurable markers. Emotional regulation, understood as intrapersonal regulation and measured by self-report questionnaires such as the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, is proposed as a marker of online control. Cognitive empathy—the ability to understand another person’s perspective while distinguishing it from one’s own—is proposed as a second marker of online control, functioning as an interpersonal form of emotion regulation. Affective empathy, by contrast, is not expected to serve as a marker because it is largely a bottom-up process. Coping flexibility, the ability to interrupt an ineffective coping strategy and develop and implement an alternative one, is proposed as the marker of offline control. The authors assume these processes are supported by the prefrontal cortex and form part of the executive functions, noting that emotional regulation, cognitive empathy, and coping flexibility share common brain structures.

To test whether these markers covary as the framework predicts, the team recruited 166 neurotypical volunteers—85 men and 81 women aged 18 to 60, with a mean age of 32.05 years—whose mother tongue was French. Participants were recruited via posters at the School of Practitioner Psychologists, the Institute of Biomedical Research of the Army, and the Higher School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry, and all were free of neurological, psychiatric, or endocrine pathology. The study, approved by the Ethics Committee of Paris-Descartes University, was exploratory and collected psychometric data over nine months. Each participant completed the Interpersonal Reactivity Index for empathy, the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for regulation strategies, and the Coping Flexibility Scale, all on a laptop computer.

The analysis focused on two empathy dimensions: perspective taking as the marker of cognitive empathy and empathic concern as the marker of affective empathy, since previous research suggests the personal distress and fantasy subscales are less reliable indicators of empathy itself. Because the questionnaire responses did not meet assumptions of normality, the team used non-parametric statistics, including Spearman correlations, with false discovery rate controlled using the Benjamini–Hochberg procedure. The results showed that cognitive empathy correlated positively with all five adaptive emotion regulation strategies measured by the CERQ—acceptance, positive refocusing, refocus on planning, positive reappraisal, and putting into perspective—with the strongest association being positive reappraisal at a Spearman’s rho of 0.43. Cognitive empathy also correlated negatively with blaming others, one of the maladaptive strategies, though it correlated positively with rumination, another strategy typically classified as maladaptive.

Affective empathy showed a much narrower pattern, correlating positively with rumination only. Meanwhile, the personal distress factor, which the authors treat as a proxy for anxiety traits, mirrored perspective taking in reverse: it correlated negatively with all five adaptive strategies and positively with several maladaptive ones. Coping flexibility told a similar story. Cognitive empathy correlated positively with both evaluation coping (rho = 0.31) and adaptive coping (rho = 0.33), while personal distress correlated negatively with both. Empathic concern correlated only with adaptive coping, not with evaluation coping, which the authors interpret through Gross’s Perception-Valuation-Action sequence: evaluation coping appears to require a top-down valuation of emotion that affective empathy, as a bottom-up process, does not provide. Coping flexibility itself correlated positively with all five adaptive regulation strategies and negatively with catastrophizing.

The study also documented demographic patterns. Women scored higher than men on perspective taking, empathic concern, personal distress, and fantasy, though the authors caution that self-report questionnaires may reflect social desirability and gender-role expectations, since experimental and physiological measures often show minimal or no gender differences. Fantasy scores were highest in the youngest age group, while the other empathy dimensions did not differ across age groups. Internal consistency was acceptable for most scales, with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.79 for perspective taking, 0.74 for the IRI overall, 0.80 for the CERQ, and 0.86 for the Coping Flexibility Scale, although empathic concern fell slightly below the conventional threshold at 0.69.

The authors are careful about what these findings do and do not show. The study relied solely on cross-sectional trait questionnaires analyzed with pairwise Spearman correlations, which can reveal covariation between individual differences but cannot test temporal dynamics, strategy-switching processes, executive monitoring, or underlying neural mechanisms. The findings support associations between self-reported traits rather than providing direct evidence for the dynamic model itself, and the prefrontal cortex hypothesis was not directly tested. The researchers also note that the adaptive versus maladaptive classification of CERQ strategies may not be universal, citing work showing that rumination has both brooding and reflective components with opposite effects, and that the correlation between empathy and rumination in their data may reflect the broader phenomenon of co-rumination, in which perspective-taking within a relationship becomes a costly cognitive loop. They suggest that future studies could look for neural evidence of emotion control using error-related brain potentials, and they propose—cautiously, as a hypothesis for further work—that developing cognitive empathy skills might help reduce anxiety symptoms and promote emotional control. For now, the contribution is a testable map: online control marked by regulation and cognitive empathy, offline control marked by coping flexibility, and a set of correlations suggesting these capacities travel together.

Subject of Research: A conceptual framework of emotion control integrating empathy, emotion regulation, and coping flexibility, tested with questionnaire data from 166 adults.

Article Title: Conceptual framework for emotion control integrating empathy, emotional regulation, and flexibility

Article References: Barbara, L. R., Antoine, D. C., Marion, T., & Céline, R. (2026). Conceptual framework for emotion control integrating empathy, emotional regulation, and flexibility. Frontiers in Psychology, 17, Article 1753106. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1753106

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1753106

Keywords: emotion control, empathy, emotion regulation, coping flexibility, decision-making, executive functions, prefrontal cortex, questionnaire study, cognitive empathy, Frontiers in Psychology, psychology, self-regulation