The study was set in Tabriz, the largest metropolitan city in northwestern Iran, a location chosen for its rapid urbanization and the substantial presence of women as road users. Recent observational data from the region indicates that women accounted for approximately 21.73% of observed drivers, a figure that underscores the growing visibility of female drivers in a traditionally male-dominated space. Despite this numerical presence, the sociocultural context of Tabriz remains characterized by relatively traditional gender expectations. These expectations create a complex environment where the act of driving can trigger specific forms of hostility and aggression directed at women. The researchers selected this setting to provide a deeper understanding of how local conditions influence the interpretation of harassment, rather than attempting to generalize findings to all of Iran or other countries.

Participants were recruited through purposive criterion sampling from five urban health centers across different districts of Tabriz. This method allowed the research team to access a diverse sample of women from various socioeconomic backgrounds who had actively driven within the preceding three months. The inclusion criteria required participants to have at least one year of driving experience and to have experienced harassment while driving. Interviews were conducted between May and June 2021 by a female researcher with a background in psychology and counseling, ensuring a non-judgmental atmosphere that encouraged open disclosure. The semi-structured interviews lasted between 45 and 60 minutes and were conducted in either Persian or Azeri, depending on the participant’s preference. Data saturation was reached after 19 interviews, indicating that no new patterns or insights were emerging from additional participants.

The analysis of the interview data, conducted using Colaizzi’s seven-step method, revealed five overarching categories that define the female driving experience in Tabriz. One major theme was the gradual improvement in social attitudes toward women driving, with many participants noting that acceptance has increased over time due to generational change and the normalization of women in the traffic environment. However, this progress coexists with persistent stereotypes and masculine attitudes that continue to fuel harassment. Participants identified several contributing factors, including a lack of respect for traffic laws among some male drivers, cultural influences, and socioeconomic pressures. The study found that harassment is often perceived not just as aggressive driving, but as a mechanism to reinforce male dominance and discourage women’s full participation in public spaces.

Verbal and non-verbal forms of harassment emerged as the most common experiences reported by the participants. Verbal harassment included insults, mocking, and gender-based comments such as telling women to “go home and cook.” Non-verbal behaviors were equally prevalent and often more dangerous, including excessive honking, flashing headlights, sudden braking in front of female drivers, and chasing vehicles. Some participants described instances where men intentionally created accidents or blamed female drivers for collisions even when the women were not at fault. These actions were interpreted by the participants as intentional attempts to intimidate and undermine female drivers, reflecting a broader pattern of gender-based violence in the traffic environment. The use of vehicles as tools for exerting pressure and instilling fear was identified as a critical safety concern that goes beyond typical road rage.

The consequences of this harassment extend far beyond the immediate incident, affecting the psychological well-being and mobility of female drivers. Short-term effects included stress, anger, reduced concentration, and a loss of confidence while driving. Participants reported that the stress of harassment often transferred to their home and work lives, leading to irritability and difficulty in managing daily tasks. Long-term outcomes were more severe, with some women experiencing persistent anxiety, fear, and depression. A significant number of participants reported temporary or permanent withdrawal from driving due to the fear of encountering harassment again. This withdrawal represents a restriction on women’s equitable access to mobility, impacting their independence and ability to participate fully in society. The study highlights that harassment is not merely a personal inconvenience but a barrier to the sustainable development of gender-equitable transportation systems.

Participants also provided insights into the factors that exacerbate harassment, noting that socioeconomic status and urban location play a role. Many women perceived that harassment was more common in downtown areas and neighborhoods with lower socioeconomic status, suggesting an intersectional dimension to the problem. The study aligns with broader research indicating that poverty and social minority status can exacerbate women’s experiences of violence. Additionally, participants pointed to cultural and educational disadvantages, as well as a lack of respect for women’s privacy, as root causes of the behavior. The male-dominated nature of the traffic environment, particularly among young people, was cited as a significant contributor. These perceptions reflect the influence of patriarchal attitudes that view the road as a space where gender hierarchy is enforced through aggressive driving behaviors.

In response to these challenges, participants proposed several strategies to reduce harassment and improve safety for female drivers. These suggestions were grouped into three main categories: socio-cultural initiatives, strengthening family support, and improving legislation and law enforcement. Socio-cultural initiatives included creating public discourse about female driving, using media to promote respect, and integrating education on respectful road behavior into school curricula. Family support was seen as crucial, with participants emphasizing the importance of spouses and fathers encouraging women’s driving and building their confidence. On the policy front, participants called for stricter enforcement of traffic laws, higher penalties for aggressive driving, and the potential revocation of licenses for repeated harassment. They also suggested that mental health assessments could be part of the licensing process to identify individuals prone to such behaviors. These multi-level approaches aim to address both the individual and structural factors contributing to harassment.

The study concludes that while social attitudes toward women driving in Tabriz are improving, gender stereotypes and traditional norms remain influential in shaping interactions on the road. The findings suggest that harassment affects women’s sense of safety and confidence, potentially limiting their participation in everyday mobility. By interpreting these results through the lenses of patriarchal norms and transport justice, the researchers argue that harassment should be viewed as a social mechanism that reproduces gender hierarchy. Addressing this issue requires a comprehensive approach that combines cultural change, family empowerment, and robust legal enforcement. As women continue to increase their presence in the traffic environment, creating a safer and more inclusive culture is essential for promoting gender equity and sustainable transportation. The study provides valuable context-specific evidence that can inform policy initiatives aimed at ensuring women’s right to safe and equitable mobility.

Subject of Research: Gender-based harassment experiences of female drivers in Tabriz, Iran

Article Title: Exploring gender-based harassment: A qualitative study of female drivers' experiences in Tabriz, Iran

Article References: Saadati, M., Pour Doulati, S., & Yari, R. (2026). Exploring gender-based harassment: A qualitative study of female drivers' experiences in Tabriz, Iran. Heliyon, 12(16), Article e45594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2026.e45594

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2026.e45594

Keywords: gender-based harassment, female drivers, Tabriz, Iran, traffic safety, qualitative study, transport justice, social norms, mobility, road rage, Exploring, gender-based