Alternative splicing is the process by which a single gene produces multiple distinct messenger RNA molecules, and therefore multiple proteins, by joining its coding segments in different combinations. In plants, this process is carried out by the spliceosome, a large molecular machine that removes intervening sequences called introns from precursor messenger RNA. Rather than being a rare curiosity, alternative splicing is now understood to be pervasive: studies cited in the review indicate that a large fraction of multi-exon plant genes generate more than one isoform, dramatically expanding the functional repertoire of even a modest genome. Under stress, the splicing pattern of many genes shifts rapidly, allowing a plant to retool its protein output within hours of a stress onset without waiting for new genes to be switched on.

The review highlights several striking examples of this rapid reprogramming. In rice, the heat stress transcription factor OsHSFA2d is alternatively spliced to produce an isoform that participates in the unfolded protein response, a cellular quality-control program activated when high temperatures damage proteins. In Arabidopsis, the serine/arginine-rich splicing factor SR45a not only promotes splicing but also interacts with the nuclear cap-binding complex to modulate the salt-stress response, illustrating that the splicing machinery itself is both a target and an executor of stress signaling. Temperature even acts directly on RNA structure: structural analyses of the tomato heat shock factor HsfA2 pre-messenger RNA show that thermal conditions can alter folding and thereby influence which splice form is produced, a mechanism sometimes described as RNA thermosensing.

Beyond heat, alternative splicing touches nearly every dimension of abiotic stress physiology. A two-staged model of sodium exclusion in rice, built on three-dimensional modeling of HKT transporters, links transporter splicing to salt tolerance. Alternatively spliced transcripts of the rice phytochelatin synthase gene OsPCS2 are implicated in mitigating cadmium and arsenic toxicity, connecting splicing to heavy metal defense. Splicing also maintains mineral nutrient homeostasis in rice, and the splicing pattern of the nitrogen assimilation gene OsGS1;1 affects nitrogen-use efficiency, grain development, and amylose content. In the hormone realm, antagonistic splice variants of HAB1 fine-tune abscisic acid signaling, the master pathway governing drought responses, while splicing variants of the bZIP transcription factor OsABI5 add another layer of ABA-dependent regulation. Even auxin transport is shaped by splicing: mutually opposing PIN7 isoforms are required for tropic growth responses in Arabidopsis.

Long non-coding RNAs represent the second pillar of this regulatory architecture. These transcripts, which exceed roughly 200 nucleotides but generally do not encode proteins, were once dismissed as transcriptional noise—so-called dark matter of the genome. The review traces their rehabilitation into recognized regulators that operate as scaffolds, signal molecules, guides, and competing endogenous RNAs. They act at both transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels, engaging chromatin-modifying machinery, transcription factors, splicing factors, and microRNA pathways. Comparative analyses across 25 flowering plants and pan-transcriptomic surveys have revealed thousands of these transcripts, many of which are dynamically induced or repressed under drought, cold, salt, heat, and nutrient stress.

Concrete functional examples abound in the literature the review synthesizes. In Arabidopsis, a nucleus-localized long non-coding RNA enhances drought and salt tolerance, while the lncRNA APOLO interacts with the transcription factor WRKY42 to trigger root hair cell expansion during cold exposure and can modulate DNA and histone methylation machineries. The antisense transcript of the dormancy quantitative trait locus DOG1 represses seed dormancy to regulate drought tolerance, and transcriptional read-through of the lncRNA SVALKA governs cold acclimation. Cold-induced long antisense transcripts silence a Polycomb target gene, demonstrating how non-coding transcription can reshape epigenetic landscapes. In cotton, the lincRNA XH123 participates in cold-stress regulation, and the polyploidization-activated lncRNA DAN1 was neofunctionalized during drought adaptation, while the lncRNA354 acts as a competing endogenous RNA for miR160b to regulate auxin response factor genes under salt stress in upland cotton.

The competing endogenous RNA mechanism deserves particular attention because it reveals how non-coding RNAs can rewire entire signaling networks. MicroRNAs normally silence target messenger RNAs by guiding cleavage or repressing translation. A lncRNA with binding sites for a given microRNA can sponge that microRNA away, protecting the messenger RNA targets. In rice, the lncRNA TCONS_00021861 is functionally associated with drought tolerance through exactly this ceRNA regulation. In maize, the lncRNA PILNCR2 increases low-phosphate tolerance by interfering with miR399-guided cleavage of phosphate transporter genes of the ZmPHT1 family. This target-mimicry concept, first established in Arabidopsis, provides a mechanistic template for how lncRNAs buffer and redirect microRNA activity under nutrient and water stress.

Perhaps the most forward-looking theme of the review is the emerging evidence that alternative splicing and lncRNAs do not operate in isolation but form an integrated regulatory web. The Arabidopsis lncRNA ASCO modulates the transcriptome through direct interaction with splicing factors, effectively inserting a non-coding RNA into the splicing machinery itself. Epigenetic marks also feed into the system: histone H3 lysine 36 methylation affects temperature-induced alternative splicing and flowering, and DNA methylation changes in Moso bamboo under abiotic stress are associated with altered expression of non-coding RNAs and messenger RNAs. RNA-directed DNA methylation pathways, in which small RNAs guide chromatin modifications, further connect the non-coding transcriptome to epigenetic memory. Together these interactions suggest a coordinated circuit in which splicing, non-coding transcription, and chromatin state continuously inform one another, granting plants the regulatory flexibility to mount graded, reversible, and in some cases memorized responses to recurring stress.

For agriculture, the implications are substantial. Conventional breeding and chemical interventions have delivered gains but remain constrained by cost, time, and genetic limitations, the authors note, bolstering the case for molecular approaches that target RNA regulation directly. Base-editing technologies have already been used to manipulate messenger RNA splicing in plants, opening a path toward precision engineering of stress-responsive isoforms. Multi-omics approaches—integrating transcriptomics, epigenomics, proteomics, and metabolomics—are now identifying the splicing events and lncRNA nodes most relevant to tolerance traits in crops ranging from rice and wheat to cassava, cotton, and citrus. Translating that catalog into durable, field-ready stress resilience will require functional validation of individual isoforms and non-coding transcripts, careful attention to trade-offs between stress tolerance and yield, and methods for delivering RNA-level edits across diverse genetic backgrounds. Still, the review makes a compelling case that the next generation of climate-resilient crops may be written not in new genes, but in the hidden grammar of their RNA.

Subject of Research: RNA-level regulation of plant abiotic stress adaptation through alternative splicing and long non-coding RNAs

Article Title: Regulatory roles of alternative splicing (AS) and long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) in plant adaptation to abiotic stresses

Article References: Ghaemi Rad, Z. S., Ahmadikhah, A., & Tohidfar, M. (2026). Regulatory roles of alternative splicing (AS) and long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) in plant adaptation to abiotic stresses. 3 Biotech, 16(10), Article 429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-026-05055-9

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s13205-026-05055-9

Keywords: alternative splicing, long non-coding RNAs, abiotic stress, plant stress response, drought tolerance, salt stress, heat stress, spliceosome, competing endogenous RNA, epigenetics, crop improvement, rice