Phosphogypsum, often abbreviated PG, is generated in enormous quantities as a by-product of the wet-process production of phosphoric acid, the chemical backbone of phosphate fertilizer manufacturing. For roughly every tonne of phosphoric acid produced, multiple tonnes of PG accumulate, and the overwhelming majority of it is simply piled into massive stacks that occupy land, threaten groundwater through leaching of sulfates, fluorides and residual acidity, and pose chronic pollution risks. Because PG is essentially compacted gypsum enriched with impurities, plants struggle to establish themselves directly on it: phosphorus is present but locked in poorly soluble forms, the physical structure is poor, and chemical conditions are unforgiving. Previous approaches have typically involved capping PG stacks with layers of imported soil, an expensive and only partially successful strategy that merely buries the problem rather than converting the material into a growth medium in its own right.

The research team, led by Jing Zhang of Kunming University together with colleagues including Yan-Ru Cao and Hua-Li Zhang of the Wuhan Institute of Technology, took a different tack. Rather than asking how to cover phosphogypsum, they asked whether the right microbe could make plants want to grow in it. From the rhizosphere of a plant thriving on a PG pile they screened for bacteria with strong acid-producing and phosphate-solubilizing capabilities—the two traits most relevant to unlocking the mineral nutrition trapped in gypsum. The strain that emerged, KC516, was confirmed as Kosakonia oryziphila, a species already known from earlier work as a plant associate and biocontrol agent in rice systems, but never before characterized in the context of phosphogypsum. In preliminary trials the bacterium promoted the growth of five different plant species, with by far the strongest response in Cosmos bipinnatus, the garden cosmos, a fast-growing ornamental that had already shown promise in earlier phytoremediation studies involving chromium-contaminated soils.

To dissect the mechanism, the team ran controlled pot experiments in which Cosmos bipinnatus was grown in a PG-based substrate, with and without inoculation with KC516, and then measured everything from germination rates and root architecture through to rhizosphere soil chemistry and the gene-expression profile of the plant roots. The phenotypic results were striking. Germination rate rose by 12 percent, plant height by 28 percent, root length by a dramatic 106 percent, and dry weight by 115 percent relative to uninoculated controls. Root length in particular is the parameter that matters most in a hostile substrate, because a plant’s ability to penetrate and exploit a growing medium determines how much water and nutrition it can access. Doubling root length in phosphogypsum essentially doubles the exploratory reach of the seedling in a medium where resources are scarce and chemically locked away.

The physiological measurements told a complementary story. Inoculated plants accumulated higher levels of photosynthetic pigments—the chlorophylls and carotenoids that power carbon fixation—as well as elevated concentrations of indole-3-acetic acid, the principal auxin hormone that drives cell elongation and root development. At the same time, levels of abscisic acid, the stress hormone that generally signals drought or chemical adversity and suppresses growth, declined slightly, as did soluble sugars, a change consistent with a shift away from stress physiology and toward active growth metabolism. Taken together, these shifts indicate that KC516 does not merely protect the plant from the harsh PG environment; it actively reprograms the plant’s hormonal state from a defensive posture into a growth-oriented one.

The geochemical side of the story is where the bacterium’s industrial significance becomes clearest. In the rhizosphere—the narrow zone of soil immediately surrounding the roots where plant and microbe chemistry interact—KC516 lowered soil pH and reduced the concentrations of calcium ions and sulfate ions, while increasing available phosphorus by 11.4 percent. The mechanism is a classic one in microbial ecology: by excreting organic acids, the bacterium protonates the mineral matrix of the phosphogypsum, dissolving calcium phosphate compounds that are otherwise insoluble and releasing phosphate into forms the plant can absorb. The drop in calcium and sulfate concentrations reflects the mobilization and uptake of these ions once the gypsum matrix begins to dissolve. In effect, KC516 acts as a chemical key, converting an inert mineral waste product into a slow-release nutrient source, with sulfur—an essential plant macronutrient in its own right—becoming available to the plant as a bonus.

To understand how the plant responds to this bacterial intervention at the molecular level, the researchers performed transcriptome sequencing on the roots, comparing gene expression between inoculated and uninoculated plants. The analysis revealed that KC516 upregulated suites of genes involved in hormone regulation, organic acid synthesis, and anion transport, and statistical analysis showed that these transcriptional changes were positively correlated with the measured growth and photosynthetic parameters. The hormone-related genes presumably amplify the auxin signal that drives root proliferation; the organic acid synthesis genes would feed back into the rhizosphere, since plant-derived organic acids cooperate with bacterial ones in solubilizing mineral phosphorus; and the anion transport genes include the machinery for taking up the sulfate released from the dissolving gypsum. The root, in other words, is not a passive beneficiary but an active participant, retooling its own biochemistry to exploit the geochemical window the bacterium opens.

Among 35 differentially expressed transcription factor families—regulatory proteins that control the expression of other genes—three emerged as particularly significant connectors between the bacterial treatment and the plant’s response. MYB-family transcription factors were associated with the accumulation of photosynthetic pigments, consistent with a growing body of work showing that MYB-related regulators control chloroplast biogenesis and chlorophyll biosynthesis. AP2/ERF transcription factors, well known for their roles in root development and stress signaling, were implicated in the dramatic root elongation observed in the inoculated plants. And bHLH-family factors were linked to organic acid synthesis, providing a regulatory handle on the very metabolic pathway that sustains phosphorus mobilization in the rhizosphere. This layered regulatory architecture—bacterial chemistry at the bottom, transcriptional reprogramming in the middle, and whole-plant physiology at the top—offers a mechanistically coherent picture of how a rhizosphere bacterium can convert an industrial waste into a functional growth medium.

The authors suggest that their findings provide both a theoretical foundation and a practical strain resource for two linked goals: expanding the disposal and utilization pathways for the world’s accumulating phosphogypsum, and achieving vegetation restoration directly on PG stockpile areas. Cosmos bipinnatus is an attractive candidate for such restoration because it is fast-growing, tolerant of marginal substrates, and has demonstrated aptitude for extracting heavy metals from contaminated sites in earlier studies, making it a plausible pioneer species for greening PG stacks. If inoculation with KC516 or similar strains can be scaled to field conditions, the approach could reduce reliance on costly soil capping, lower the long-term environmental liabilities of PG storage, and potentially contribute to a circular-economy vision in which fertilizer waste is itself converted back into productive, vegetated land.

The study also contributes a rich dataset to the scientific community, with the raw RNA-sequencing reads deposited in the NCBI Sequence Read Archive under BioProject accession PRJNA1501917, ensuring that other researchers can interrogate the transcriptomic responses independently. Future work will need to test whether the pot-experiment results hold up on actual phosphogypsum stacks, where climate, leaching, competing microbes and the full spectrum of PG impurities—including trace heavy metals and residual radionuclides that have long concerned regulators—will impose additional pressures. Whether the strong species-specific benefit to Cosmos bipinnatus extends to other candidates, and how the bacterial community as a whole behaves when a single introduced strain is applied at scale, remain open questions. But the core demonstration stands: a bacterium rescued from the rhizosphere of a weed growing on a waste pile can double root growth in that same waste, by rewriting both the geochemistry around the root and the genetic program within it. As phosphogypsum mountains continue to grow alongside global fertilizer demand, solutions that come from such humble, site-adapted microbes may prove among the most practical paths to making these industrial landscapes green.

Zhang, J., Dong, H.-T., Yang, Y.-C., Liu, R., Wang, S., Zhang, A.-L., Su, Y., Dong, M.-H., Cao, Y.-R., & Zhang, H.-L. (2026). Kosakonia oryziphila KC516 mediated growth promotion of Cosmos bipinnatus in phosphogypsum by modulating rhizosphere geochemistry and root transcriptome. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 48, 573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-026-03434-y

Nitrous oxide has been traditionally studied for its environmental effects, notably its contribution to global warming and stratospheric ozone depletion. This gas naturally emanates from soil microbial activity, particularly from nitrogen-transforming processes such as denitrification, but anthropogenic activities, including extensive fertilizer use, dramatically elevate its concentration. Despite decades of research into N₂O’s atmospheric impacts, it has been widely assumed that nitrous oxide negligibly interacts with the organisms inhabiting the soil rhizosphere—the microenvironment immediately adjacent to plant roots. Contradicting this perspective, researchers at MIT have uncovered that nitrous oxide can selectively inhibit the growth of certain bacterial strains, emphasizing a nuanced biological role that had eluded scientific scrutiny.

The study, spearheaded by senior author Darcy McRose and doctoral candidate Philip Wasson, delved into the molecular mechanisms underpinning microbial sensitivity to nitrous oxide. Central to their investigation was the enzyme methionine synthase, a critical catalyst in the biosynthesis of methionine, an essential amino acid indispensable for protein synthesis and cellular function. Methionine synthase exists in two biochemical variants: one dependent on cobalamin (vitamin B12) and another independent of this cofactor. Notably, many soil bacteria harbor dual enzymatic pathways, providing redundancy and metabolic flexibility. The research team postulated that nitrous oxide’s toxicity might stem from its capacity to inactivate the cobalamin-dependent methionine synthase, thereby impairing microbial growth.

Utilizing the model organism Pseudomonas aeruginosa, recognized for its well-characterized genetics and metabolic versatility, the scientists engineered mutants lacking the vitamin B12-independent methionine synthase. This genetic modification unveiled a heightened vulnerability to nitrous oxide, as these mutants exhibited stunted growth and metabolic disruption even when exposed to endogenous N₂O produced by their denitrification processes. This finding provided compelling evidence that nitrous oxide selectively compromises bacterial strains reliant on the B12-dependent enzymatic pathway, effectively acting as a molecular antagonist.

In a further extension of their work, McRose and Wasson constructed a synthetic microbial consortium derived from Arabidopsis thaliana root-associated bacteria to simulate the complexity of natural rhizosphere communities. Their observations confirmed a consistent pattern: bacterial populations sensitive to nitrous oxide showed reduced viability when co-cultured with nitrous oxide-producing denitrifiers. This inter-microbial antagonism suggests that N₂O-producing bacteria can influence community structure by inhibiting susceptible neighbors, thereby shaping the ecological dynamics at the plant-soil interface.

The broader implications of these findings are profound, potentially redefining agricultural practices and soil microbiome management. Agricultural soils frequently experience episodic surges in nitrous oxide concentration, prompted by events such as nitrogen fertilizer application, precipitation-induced soil moisture fluctuations, and freeze-thaw cycles. These transient chemical environments could exert selective pressures that favor the proliferation of nitrous oxide-resistant microbial taxa over sensitive ones, consequently altering soil health, nutrient cycling, and ultimately plant productivity.

While the laboratory findings offer a compelling mechanistic insight, the translation of these results to field conditions remains an imperative future direction. The researchers emphasize that in situ studies and metagenomic analyses of agricultural soils are essential to detect the genomic signatures of nitrous oxide exposure and to validate the ecological relevance of their laboratory observations. Such efforts could elucidate whether nitrous oxide acts as a selective agent driving microbial community succession and functional shifts in agroecosystems.

The novel perspective introduced by this research challenges the entrenched view of nitrous oxide as merely a passive atmospheric pollutant. Instead, it emerges as an active biochemical influencer within terrestrial ecosystems, capable of modulating microbial interactions through targeted enzymatic inactivation. This understanding opens avenues for innovative strategies to mitigate nitrous oxide emissions not only for climate benefits but also to preserve beneficial soil microbial diversity vital for sustainable agriculture.

Moreover, the identification of genomic traits conferring nitrous oxide resistance or susceptibility provides a testable hypothesis with practical applications. By characterizing microbial communities based on the presence of cobalamin-dependent versus independent methionine synthase genes, scientists can predict and possibly manipulate soil microbiomes to enhance crop resilience. This approach aligns with emerging concepts in precision agriculture, where microbial functional traits inform tailored soil management.

In sum, the MIT study illuminates a previously unrecognized dimension of nitrous oxide biology, highlighting how this gaseous molecule exerts selective toxicity on soil bacteria through disruption of vitamin B12-dependent metabolic pathways. This discovery underscores the complex, and at times paradoxical, relationships between environmental pollutants and the living organisms inhabiting their milieu. As researchers extend these insights into agronomic contexts, new horizons emerge for balancing ecosystem health, crop productivity, and environmental stewardship.

Subject of Research: Interaction of nitrous oxide with microbial communities in the rhizosphere and its effects on bacterial growth via inactivation of vitamin B12-dependent methionine synthase.

Article Title: “Nitrous oxide produced by denitrifying pseudomonads inhibits the growth of rhizosphere bacteria by inactivating the cobalamin-dependent methionine synthase”

Web References: DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02699-25

Keywords: Nitrous oxide, N₂O toxicity, soil microbes, rhizosphere, methionine biosynthesis, vitamin B12, cobalamin-dependent methionine synthase, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, microbial communities, agroecosystems, denitrification, microbial ecology, plant-microbe interactions

Soil bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms form dynamic communities within the rhizosphere—the narrow zone around plant roots where nutrient exchange and biochemical signaling occur intensively. These microbial populations modulate root architecture, enhance nutrient acquisition, and bolster plant defense systems against disease and environmental stresses. Until now, the contributions of these microscopic partners to cotton crop yield under varying climatic and agronomic conditions have remained largely obscure. By deploying cutting-edge genomic sequencing technologies, the consortium aims to profile the composition, function, and interaction of microbial assemblages from geographically and environmentally distinct cotton-growing regions.

One of the most compelling facets of this research is its attention to site-specific challenges faced by cotton agriculture. Cotton crops routinely endure biotic stressors including viral pathogens such as cotton leaf crumple virus and cotton leafroll dwarf virus, alongside insect pests like whiteflies and aphids. Although each factor individually might inflict modest damage, their synergistic impact in conjunction with abiotic stressors—drought, flooding, soil salinity, and temperature extremes—creates compounded threats that disrupt both plant development and the beneficial soil microbiome. Understanding this interplay stands as a crucial step toward mitigating yield losses and fostering crop resilience.

Field sampling and data collection span multiple ecologically diverse regions—ranging from the arid soils of Palo Verde Valley, California, to the higher elevation and cooler temperatures characteristic of Safford, Arizona’s high desert, and further extending to Texas’ High Plains and the humid Cotton Belt of West Tennessee. This strategic geographic coverage enables researchers to parse out how variations in elevation, precipitation patterns, soil chemistry, and humidity shape microbial community structure and functionality, and how these in turn influence cotton physiology and agricultural outcomes.

Employing next-generation sequencing methods, the team analyzes metagenomic data derived from leaf and soil specimens to identify microbial taxa, monitor shifts in community dynamics, and detect functional genes related to nutrient cycling, stress tolerance, and pathogen antagonism. This comprehensive molecular profiling is complemented by agronomic data collection on farming practices, crop varieties, and environmental parameters, creating an integrative framework capable of linking microbial signatures to practical outcomes in crop health and productivity.

Dr. Avat Shekoofa, crop physiology researcher at UTIA, highlights the novelty and scope of this interdisciplinary collaboration: “Few studies have coupled microbial ecology with agronomic variables like cover cropping and cotton varietal selection across such a broad environmental gradient. Our collective findings will provide empirically grounded insights that could redefine how farmers integrate microbiome management into their cotton production systems, regardless of geographic constraints.”

Soil health assessment tools emerging from this research aim to quantify microbiome contributions to soil fertility and plant vigor, offering a practical resource amid increasingly complex pressures faced by growers. According to Judith Brown, a plant pathologist and project lead at the University of Arizona’s School of Plant Sciences, “Reliable, field-applicable diagnostics for soil microbiome health are crucial as producers navigate agronomic challenges compounded by economic and environmental uncertainties.”

The potential applications of this research extend beyond diagnostics to include microbial-informed crop breeding programs and innovative agronomic management strategies. By deciphering beneficial microbial consortia that confer resistance against viral infections and insect herbivory—or that improve nutrient and water use efficiency—breeders can select cotton varieties optimized to foster synergistic plant-microbe partnerships. Concurrently, farmers could adopt tailored soil amendments or cover cropping protocols designed to nurture advantageous microbial communities, thereby enhancing yield stability and sustainability.

Randy Norton, an Extension agronomist and cotton specialist at the University of Arizona, expresses optimism regarding the translational impact of these findings: “Empowering farmers with microbiome-informed tools and knowledge will improve their capacity to manage production risks and optimize inputs throughout the crop lifecycle, ultimately securing yields and economic viability.”

The project is poised to deliver preliminary data by 2025, which will form the foundation of future funding proposals submitted to the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture’s Agriculture and Food Research Initiative Commodity Board Co-funding Topics program. This sustained research endeavor underscores the crucial role of collaborative networks spanning multiple universities and integrating expertise from agriculture, microbiology, genomics, and plant pathology.

Constituting a flagship example of the University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture’s long-standing land-grant mission, this initiative unites the Herbert College of Agriculture, UT College of Veterinary Medicine, UT AgResearch, and UT Extension to address real-world challenges through innovative research and outreach. By leveraging shared resources and combining field-based observations with molecular insights, researchers are constructing a holistic model of cotton agroecosystem health that respects both plant and soil biology.

In sum, this pioneering investigation into the soil microbiome-cotton nexus has the potential to rewrite principles of crop production under global change. Through in-depth understanding of how microorganisms synergize with their plant hosts in the face of mounting biotic and abiotic stressors, agricultural systems can evolve from conventional paradigms toward resilient, microbiome-conscious frameworks. This project not only advances basic scientific knowledge but also proposes actionable solutions that align with sustainability goals, opening new frontiers in agronomic innovation and environmental stewardship.

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Subject of Research: Soil microbial communities and their impact on cotton crop development and yield under diverse environmental and agronomic conditions.

Article Title: Unlocking the Soil Microbiome: Transforming Cotton Agriculture Across Diverse Climates

News Publication Date: 2025 (Preliminary data collection year)

Web References: https://utia.tennessee.edu/

Image Credits: Photo by T. Cronin, courtesy University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture

Keywords: Cotton, Crop production, Farming, Agriculture, Agronomy, Microorganisms

The rhizosphere, the dynamic interface between plant roots and surrounding soil, is a notoriously complex habitat teeming with microbial life and biochemical exchanges. It’s in this rich milieu that viruses—particularly bacteriophages capable of lysogenic cycles—exert an unsuspected influence. Unlike lytic viruses that destroy their bacterial hosts, lysogenic viruses integrate their genomes into host DNA, entering a quiescent state. However, this new research reveals that such lysogenic states can actively manipulate host metabolic pathways to confer environmental advantages—in this case, facilitating the oxidation of arsenic, a toxic metalloid prevalent in many soils and groundwater systems worldwide.

Arsenic contamination poses a severe threat to human health and ecosystems globally. Its varying valence states, notably arsenite (As^3+) and arsenate (As^5+), differ dramatically in toxicity and mobility. Microbial arsenic oxidation, converting the more toxic arsenite into arsenate, significantly reduces toxicity and improves environmental safety. Yet, the microbial drivers and precise regulatory mechanisms of this process within the rhizosphere have remained enigmatic until now. This study elucidates how virus-induced lysogeny reprograms key microbial metabolisms to amplify arsenic oxidation, thus bridging virology and environmental microbiology in an unprecedented way.

The research team employed deep metagenomic sequencing, transcriptomic analyses, and advanced metabolomics within rhizosphere soil samples. These efforts identified specific prophages—integrated viral genomes—harbored within arsenic-oxidizing bacterial strains. Remarkably, prophage genes were linked to regulatory elements controlling microbial arsenic metabolism, suggesting that the viruses were not passive occupants but active modulators of host functional pathways. This viral-mediated metabolic rewiring challenges long-held assumptions that prophages merely sit idly, waiting to reactivate into lytic cycles.

Further biochemical assays demonstrated that infected bacteria exhibited enhanced expression of arsenite oxidase enzymes, the molecular workhorses driving arsenic oxidation. Viral factors appeared to upregulate arsenic detoxification genes and energy generation modules, effectively rewiring host cellular machinery to prioritize arsenic oxidation as a metabolic focal point. This synergistic strategy benefits both partner microbes and their viral passengers, stabilizing host populations and facilitating environmental detoxification.

Intriguingly, plant root exudates emerged as crucial environmental cues triggering viral lysogeny activation within the rhizosphere microcosm. These organic compounds secreted by roots alter microbial community dynamics and appear to stimulate prophage integration and gene expression dedicated to arsenic oxidation enhancement. This phenomenon underscores a complex tripartite relationship among plants, bacteria, and viruses that dynamically shapes biogeochemical processes at the microscale.

The ecological and evolutionary significance of this viral-mediated metabolic shift is profound. Viruses, often perceived solely as microbial predators, are revealed here as key architects steering microbial function and environmental chemistry. This finding prompts a paradigm shift: lysogenic viruses are not parasites but integral symbionts fostering microbial adaptation to environmental stressors such as heavy metal contamination. This viral metabolic modulation may represent a widespread yet overlooked mechanism enhancing microbial resilience and ecosystem health.

By adding an additional regulatory layer to the microbial response toolkit, viral lysogeny could accelerate bioremediation in arsenic-polluted areas. Understanding this viral influence offers exciting avenues for engineered microbial consortia designed to detoxify arsenic-laden environments more effectively. The modulation of viral-host interactions in situ could become a novel strategy for mitigating arsenic toxicity in agriculture and drinking water systems, with global public health benefits.

Moreover, this discovery invites reflection on the intricate co-evolutionary arms race within microbial communities. Viruses not only impose selective pressures by killing hosts but also integrate into microbial genomes to manipulate metabolism, ensuring mutual survivability. Such lysogeny-driven metabolic programming might extend beyond arsenic oxidation to other environmentally relevant processes, including nitrogen fixation, carbon cycling, and pollutant degradation. The rhizosphere thus emerges as an evolutionary hotspot where viruses catalyze functional innovation.

Molecular unraveling of the viral genes responsible for these metabolic effects revealed previously uncharacterized viral regulatory proteins, including transcriptional activators that interface directly with bacterial metabolic gene promoters. This novel class of viral effectors opens fascinating inquiry lines into how viral genomes coopt host transcriptional machinery, altering phenotypes beyond defense and nutrition. It positions viral lysogeny as a sophisticated form of gene regulation, with implications for microbiome engineering.

Technological advancements underpinning this research—such as single-cell genomics coupled with high-resolution metabolite profiling—were instrumental in teasing apart these subtle interdomain interactions. These tools allowed researchers to link viral presence directly with shifts in microbial metabolic flux, bypassing prior indirect inference methods. This combined omics approach represents a new frontier in environmental virology, capable of revealing hidden layers of microbial ecosystem functioning governed by viral agents.

The broader environmental implications heighten with an understanding that arsenic contamination frequently co-occurs with other heavy metals and pollutants. Viral modulation of microbial arsenic metabolism may influence or be influenced by concurrent pathways impacting metal homeostasis and oxidative stress responses. This interconnectedness further highlights the importance of integrating viral ecology into environmental management frameworks traditionally focused solely on microbial or chemical components.

Interdisciplinary collaboration among virologists, microbiologists, ecologists, and environmental engineers was critical to achieving this breakthrough. It illustrates the growing recognition that comprehending Earth’s biogeochemical cycles requires a holistic perspective—one that appreciates viruses as dynamic, metabolically influential players rather than mere footnotes in microbial community narratives. Such integrative science paves the way for novel strategies addressing pressing environmental challenges.

Future research will undoubtedly explore how widespread this viral-induced metabolic reprogramming is across other contaminant contexts and ecosystems. Determining the specificity of viral-host metabolic interactions and identifying environmental triggers of lysogenic activation will be crucial for harnessing these processes in practical applications. Additionally, assessing potential risks or unintended consequences of manipulating viral populations in the environment will form an essential part of developing viral-based biotechnologies.

In conclusion, this pioneering study invites us to rethink viruses not just as microbial foes but as vital contributors to ecosystem functioning and resilience. Through rhizosphere-triggered viral lysogeny, microbes undergo metabolic transformations that enhance arsenic oxidation, revealing an elegant, previously hidden synergy. This discovery not only advances fundamental understanding of microbe-virus interactions but also empowers innovative approaches to ameliorate heavy metal pollution—demonstrating that sometimes the smallest entities wield the largest environmental influence.

Subject of Research: Microbial metabolic reprogramming mediated by viral lysogeny in the rhizosphere to enhance arsenic oxidation.

Article Title: Rhizosphere-triggered viral lysogeny mediates microbial metabolic reprogramming to enhance arsenic oxidation.

Article References:
Song, X., Wang, Y., Wang, Y. et al. Rhizosphere-triggered viral lysogeny mediates microbial metabolic reprogramming to enhance arsenic oxidation. Nat Commun 16, 4048 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-58695-5

Image Credits: AI Generated