Victoria Blue B is a cationic dye used extensively in textile, leather, and printing industries, and it presents a serious environmental challenge. Even trace quantities below one milligram per liter can impart intense coloration to water, blocking light penetration and suppressing photosynthesis in aquatic plants. The dye resists degradation by heat, light, and microbial activity, allowing it to persist and accumulate in natural water bodies. Prolonged exposure has been linked to skin allergies, respiratory irritation, gastrointestinal disturbances, and mutagenic and cytotoxic effects, making its removal from wastewater a priority for both public health and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 on clean water and sanitation.

Conventional treatment options each carry significant drawbacks. Membrane filtration is effective but expensive and prone to fouling, coagulation and flocculation generate large volumes of chemical sludge, electrodialysis demands high energy input, photocatalytic degradation often requires ultraviolet light and catalysts that lose activity over time, and bioremediation is hampered by the toxicity of the dyes themselves, which inhibit microbial growth. Adsorption has long been viewed as the most practical alternative, offering high efficiency, operational simplicity, and the possibility of regenerating and reusing the adsorbent, but the performance of the material doing the adsorbing is the decisive factor.

The novelty of the new work lies in the deliberate construction of a cooperative surface in which carbon, metal borates, and metal oxides coexist within a single hybrid architecture. The researchers synthesized two materials using the Pechini sol-gel route, a polymeric complexation method in which tartaric acid chelates magnesium, strontium, and lead ions while its hydroxyl groups form boron-tartrate complexes with boric acid through B-O linkages. Polyethylene glycol 400 acts as a polymerizing agent, creating an extended organic network that locks the metal complexes into molecular-scale uniformity. When the dried gel is calcined, the organic matrix decomposes to yield intimately mixed inorganic phases, and depending on the temperature, a portion of the carbonaceous material is retained.

Calcination at 500 degrees Celsius produced a material designated MSPB500, composed of MgSrB2O5, PbB2O4, and SrB2O4 phases embedded in a carbon-rich matrix, while treatment at 700 degrees Celsius yielded MSPB700, containing additional SrPbO3, Pb3O4, and Mg2B2O5 phases with far less carbon. X-ray diffraction confirmed the targeted phase assemblages and gave mean crystallite sizes of 57.89 nanometers for MSPB500 and 74.47 nanometers for MSPB700. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy revealed sheet-like and flake-like features for MSPB500 with a mean particle size of 59.34 nanometers, compared with denser spherical and oval aggregates averaging 160.72 nanometers for MSPB700. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy confirmed the presence of carbon, boron, magnesium, oxygen, strontium, and lead, with carbon contents of 18.5 weight percent for MSPB500 against just 4.7 percent for MSPB700.

Those structural differences translated directly into adsorption performance. MSPB500 offered a BET surface area of 6.87 square meters per gram and a total pore volume of 0.07653 cubic centimeters per gram, substantially higher than the 2.35 square meters per gram and 0.04263 cubic centimeters per gram measured for MSPB700. Under optimal conditions of pH 10 and 298 kelvin, MSPB500 achieved a maximum adsorption capacity of 369.00 milligrams per gram and a removal efficiency of 96.22 percent, reaching equilibrium within 60 minutes. MSPB700 reached a capacity of 282.49 milligrams per gram and 72.21 percent removal, equilibrating in 80 minutes. Both figures compare favorably with earlier Victoria Blue B adsorbents such as zinc oxide nanoparticles at 163.00 milligrams per gram, MCM-41 silica at 192.30 milligrams per gram, and activated carbon at 92.78 milligrams per gram.

The mechanism behind the uptake is pH-governed electrostatic attraction. The point of zero charge was measured at approximately 7.3 for MSPB500 and 8.5 for MSPB700, meaning that at pH 10 both surfaces carry a net negative charge that strongly attracts the positively charged dye molecules. Because pH 10 lies further above the point of zero charge for MSPB500, its surface is more strongly negative, which helps explain its superior performance. The borate-rich phases provide a high density of polar, non-bridging B-O oxygen sites, while the retained carbon domains contribute pi-pi interaction sites that bind the aromatic structure of the dye. Infrared spectroscopy confirmed dye loading through the appearance of characteristic C-N and aromatic C=C bands after adsorption, and elemental analysis detected nitrogen, absent from the pristine material, on the dye-loaded surface.

Kinetic and thermodynamic analyses painted a consistent picture of predominantly physical adsorption. The data followed the pseudo-first-order model with correlation coefficients of 0.9999 for both materials, and equilibrium fit the Langmuir isotherm, indicating monolayer uptake on energetically uniform sites. Adsorption was exothermic and spontaneous, with removal efficiency declining as temperature rose from 298 to 328 kelvin. Importantly, inductively coupled plasma analysis of post-adsorption filtrates detected no leaching of lead, strontium, or magnesium ions, confirming that the metals are locked into stable crystalline borate and oxide phases and that treated water is not secondarily contaminated. The materials also tolerated moderate ionic strength and outperformed expectations in the presence of competing ions, although the cationic dye crystal violet competed strongly for adsorption sites.

Practical reusability was demonstrated over five consecutive adsorption-desorption cycles using hydrochloric acid as the eluting agent. Nearly complete desorption was achieved at 2 molar acid concentration, and after five cycles MSPB500 still removed 86.64 percent of the dye while MSPB700 managed 59.79 percent. X-ray diffraction of the regenerated MSPB500 showed no significant changes in peak positions or intensities, indicating that the crystalline structure survived repeated regeneration. The team also tested the materials on real laboratory wastewater from Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, spiked with Victoria Blue B to 250 milligrams per liter. Despite a complex ionic background including sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, nitrate, and phosphate, MSPB500 still achieved a capacity of 341.85 milligrams per gram and MSPB700 reached 259.62 milligrams per gram, only modestly below their deionized-water performance.

The researchers argue that the key innovation is not any single component but the synergy created when multiple borate and oxide phases operate in parallel with carbon-derived adsorption domains, multiplying the population of accessible active sites. They note that the Pechini route offers better control over stoichiometry, particle size, and elemental distribution than conventional solid-state, co-precipitation, combustion, or hydrothermal methods, and it requires no high-pressure equipment. Future work will evaluate the nanohybrids in additional real wastewater streams, run continuous-flow fixed-bed column tests to assess scale-up feasibility, and systematically tune thermal treatment conditions to correlate phase and textural evolution with long-term regeneration stability. If those steps succeed, the multiphase carbon-borate-oxide design could offer a robust, regenerable, and comparatively simple route to cleaner industrial effluents.

Subject of Research: Development of Pechini-derived carbon, metal borate, and metal oxide nanocomposites for adsorptive removal of Victoria Blue B dye from water

Article Title: Efficient removal of Victoria Blue B dye from water using novel nanocomposites based on carbon, metal borates, and metal oxides

Article References: Al-Kadhi, N. S., Abdelrahman, E. A., & Aljlil, S. A. (2026). Efficient removal of Victoria Blue B dye from water using novel nanocomposites based on carbon, metal borates, and metal oxides. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, 30(4), Article 58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44442-026-00110-9

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44442-026-00110-9

Keywords: Victoria Blue B, dye removal, nanocomposites, adsorption, Pechini sol-gel, metal borates, water treatment, wastewater treatment, Langmuir isotherm, pseudo-first-order kinetics, reusability, carbon nanohybrids

The material begins with sulfonate chemistry. Sulfonate groups carry one of the lowest pKa values among common functional groups, which means they remain deprotonated—and therefore negatively charged—across a wide pH window. That persistent negative charge makes them ideal electrostatic traps for positively charged dye molecules. Earlier work on chitosan-grafted polystyrene sulfonate hydrogels demonstrated respectable performance, achieving capacities near 394 milligrams per gram, but such gels suffer from two chronic weaknesses: modest mechanical strength and excessive swelling that can compromise structural integrity in service. The new study set out to resolve those limitations by embedding inorganic magnesium oxide nanoparticles directly into the polymer network during synthesis.

Preparation followed a free-radical polymerization route. Magnesium oxide nanoparticles were first produced from magnesium nitrate hexahydrate using citric acid as a chelating agent, dried to a fluffy white precursor, and calcined at 600 degrees Celsius. Sodium styrene sulfonate was then polymerized in the presence of chitosan, ammonium persulfate as initiator, and N,N’-methylenebisacrylamide as cross-linker under nitrogen at 65 degrees Celsius. Three formulations containing 30, 150, and 300 milligrams of magnesium oxide were prepared by ultrasonically dispersing the nanoparticles before adding them to the reaction mixture. The highest-loading gel emerged as the clear performer and became the focus of all subsequent characterization and adsorption testing.

Microscopy revealed why the composite works so well. Field-emission scanning electron microscopy showed the pristine hydrogel as a relatively smooth, dense surface with low porosity—tight packing that restricts diffusion pathways to internal adsorption sites. After magnesium oxide incorporation, the morphology transformed dramatically: the surface became rougher and more irregular, with interconnected holes and voids. The nanoparticles act as physical spacers within the cross-linked network, reducing packing density and opening the architecture, which dramatically expands the accessible surface area. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy confirmed magnesium and oxygen signals alongside carbon, nitrogen, sodium, and sulfur from the organic framework, and elemental mapping showed uniform distribution with no large-scale phase segregation—evidence of genuine organic-inorganic integration rather than simple physical blending.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy reinforced that picture. The composite retained all the characteristic bands of the parent hydrogel, including broad O-H and N-H stretching near 3200 to 3500 inverse centimeters and the symmetric and asymmetric sulfonate stretches between 1030 and 1180 inverse centimeters, while new Mg-O vibrations appeared in the 500 to 700 range. Slight peak shifts of 10 to 30 inverse centimeters in the sulfonate and hydroxyl regions signaled strong interfacial bonding between the inorganic phase and the polymer functional groups. Thermogravimetric analysis added a thermal dimension to the story: the pure hydrogel retained only 3.7 percent residual mass at 800 degrees Celsius, whereas the composite left 24.87 percent behind, with decomposition stages shifted to higher temperatures—clear proof that magnesium oxide stiffens the network and delays degradation.

Adsorption experiments probed pH, initial dye concentration, contact time, temperature, and ionic strength using 10 milligrams of adsorbent in 10 milliliters of dye solution monitored at 589 nanometers. Performance rose steadily with pH: under acidic conditions, protonated amine and hydroxyl groups diminish the surface’s negative charge while hydrogen ions compete for binding sites, suppressing uptake. As pH climbs past the point of zero charge—measured at just 2.08 for the composite—the surface becomes strongly negative and electrostatic attraction to the cationic dye intensifies. The low pHpzc is a genuine asset, keeping the adsorbent negatively charged across nearly the entire practical pH range. Increasing ionic strength with potassium chloride produced only a slight decline in performance, indicating that electrostatics dominate but hydrogen bonding and magnesium oxide surface interactions also contribute. Selectivity tests against the anionic dye Acid Yellow 23 confirmed a strong preference for the cationic crystal violet.

Isotherm analysis with four nonlinear models placed the Langmuir equation on top, describing monolayer adsorption on a nearly homogeneous surface with a maximum capacity of 822.36 milligrams per gram and a Langmuir constant indicating strong surface affinity. The Langmuir-Freundlich model returned a nearly identical capacity of 811.56 milligrams per gram with a heterogeneity parameter close to one, confirming only slight surface heterogeneity. Kinetics told a subtler story. Uptake was rapid initially as abundant surface sites filled, then slowed toward equilibrium. Although pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order models both fit reasonably, the Elovich model proved best overall with an R-squared of 0.991, pointing to a heterogeneous, multi-step mechanism on surfaces with varying activation energies. Intraparticle diffusion plots showed two distinct linear segments with non-zero intercepts, meaning film diffusion and surface interactions—not pore diffusion alone—control the rate, aided by swelling that enlarges diffusion channels through the network.

Thermodynamics sealed the mechanistic interpretation. Gibbs free energy changes were negative at every temperature tested, ranging from -10.54 to -9.58 kilojoules per mole between 298 and 313 kelvin, confirming spontaneity. The enthalpy change of -29.89 kilojoules per mole marked the process as exothermic and dominated by physical interactions—chiefly electrostatic attraction between the dye cations and sulfonate groups—consistent with the kinetic picture. The entropy change of -64.09 joules per mole per kelvin reflected the ordering imposed when dye molecules immobilize on the polymer surface. Because the process releases heat, cooler water favors greater capacity, a useful practical note for treatment facilities operating at ambient temperatures.

Perhaps the most encouraging result is durability. Across six adsorption-desorption cycles, regenerated with a hydrochloric acid and acetone mixture, the composite held approximately 98 milligrams per gram through the first three rounds and still delivered roughly 86 milligrams per gram by the sixth—retaining over 88 percent of its original capacity. A slight uptick in the second cycle even suggested that initial swelling and shrinkage activated previously hidden sites. The authors attribute the structural resilience to magnesium oxide nanoparticles dispersed throughout the matrix, which reinforce the network against the mechanical fatigue of repeated swelling. Post-adsorption FTIR analysis confirmed the mechanism in action, with diminished sulfonate band intensities, emerging aromatic ring signals from pi-pi interactions, and subtle shifts in hydroxyl and amine regions pointing to hydrogen bonding.

Taken together, the findings position MgO@S-hydrogel as a serious candidate for cationic dye remediation. It combines the sustainability credentials of a chitosan-based bio-polymer, the electrostatic power of sulfonate chemistry, and the structural and adsorptive benefits of magnesium oxide nanoparticles, all while remaining regenerable through at least six cycles. With textile effluent threatening aquatic ecosystems worldwide and regulations tightening, adsorbents that pair exceptional capacity with mechanical stability and easy regeneration are precisely what the field has been demanding. This work suggests that a relatively simple nanocomposite strategy—embedding a basic, negatively charged metal oxide into a sulfonated biopolymer gel—can deliver performance that rivals or exceeds far more exotic materials, bringing lab-scale chemistry closer to real wastewater treatment.

Subject of Research: Magnesium oxide nanoparticle-reinforced sulfonated chitosan hydrogel for adsorptive removal of crystal violet dye from contaminated water

Article Title: MgO incorporated sulfonated chitosan hydrogel: a novel adsorbent to enhance the removal of crystal violet from aqueous solution

Article References: MgO incorporated sulfonated chitosan hydrogel: a novel adsorbent to enhance the removal of crystal violet from aqueous solution. (n.d.). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44442-026-00107-4

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44442-026-00107-4

Keywords: magnesium oxide nanoparticles, sulfonated chitosan hydrogel, crystal violet, cationic dye removal, adsorption, Langmuir isotherm, Elovich kinetics, wastewater treatment, nanocomposite, reusability, chitosan, water purification