The research combined two complementary approaches. First, the team conducted a single-center retrospective case series of seven patients diagnosed and treated at Hospital del Mar between 2020 and 2025. Second, they performed a systematic review of the published literature in accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines, searching PubMed/MEDLINE and Embase for reports published between 2015 and 2025. Eligible studies included case reports, case series, letters, correspondence, and conference abstracts, but only those providing sufficient individual patient-level data were retained. This dual design allowed the investigators to anchor their analysis in the granular reality of their own clinical practice while simultaneously mapping the broader international experience recorded across dozens of medical centers.

The Barcelona series reveals a strikingly consistent clinical phenotype. All seven patients were male, with a median age of 81 years, underscoring that this syndrome tends to strike elderly patients who are simultaneously battling advanced malignancy. The most frequent underlying tumors were non-small cell lung cancer, accounting for 42.8 percent of cases, and urothelial carcinoma, accounting for 28.5 percent. The presenting manifestations were remarkably stereotyped: diplopia, ptosis, and dyspnea each appeared in 71.4 percent of patients. In practical terms, most of these patients arrived at the hospital complaining of double vision, drooping eyelids, and breathlessness, a triad that simultaneously implicates the eye muscles, the respiratory system, and, lurking beneath the surface, the heart.

Treatment in the case series was aggressive and multidisciplinary. Most patients received high-dose corticosteroids, given to 71.4 percent, alongside intravenous immunoglobulins, administered to 85.7 percent. An additional 85.7 percent were treated with non-steroidal immunosuppressive agents, reflecting the severity of the syndrome and the recognition that steroid monotherapy is often insufficient once myocarditis is established. This therapeutic escalation mirrors the logic used in other severe immune-related adverse events: when the immune system has broken tolerance in multiple organ systems at once, clinicians must suppress it rapidly and broadly while accepting the infectious and metabolic risks that such intensive immunosuppression carries in elderly, immunocompromised patients.

The systematic review dramatically expanded the evidence base, incorporating 71 studies comprising 103 patients. The demographics differed in some respects from the local cohort: the pooled median age was 71 years and 68.9 percent of patients were male. The tumor spectrum was broader as well, with melanoma leading at 35.9 percent, followed by renal cell carcinoma and non-small cell lung cancer at 16.5 percent each. Notably, melanoma patients, who were absent from the top of the Barcelona list, dominated the literature, likely reflecting the historical predominance of melanoma in early checkpoint inhibitor trials and the greater published experience with these patients in centers that pioneered immunotherapy.

Clinically, the pooled data echoed the local series with impressive fidelity. Ptosis was the most common presenting symptom, affecting 71.8 percent of patients, and generalized weakness affected 62.1 percent. The most frequently reported initial therapeutic regimen was methylprednisolone at one gram per day, used in 35.9 percent of published cases, and 52.4 percent of patients received additional non-steroidal immunosuppressive agents. These figures suggest that, across the world, clinicians converge on a similar strategy: pulse high-dose steroids first, then layer on adjunctive agents such as intravenous immunoglobulin, plasma exchange, or targeted immunosuppressants when the response is inadequate or the cardiac involvement is severe.

The underlying biology helps explain why these three conditions cluster together. Checkpoint inhibitors block inhibitory receptors such as PD-1 and CTLA-4, which normally restrain T cell activity and preserve self-tolerance. Animal and human studies have shown that PD-1 signaling protects against inflammation and myocyte damage in T cell-mediated myocarditis, so its pharmacological blockade can unleash autoreactive T cells against shared antigens expressed in cardiac and skeletal muscle. Because striated muscle antigens are immunologically related across heart and skeletal muscle, and because autoantibodies against the neuromuscular junction can co-emerge, the syndrome behaves less like three separate toxicities and more like a single, coordinated autoimmune storm directed at the neuromuscular and cardiovascular axis.

The clinical implications are sobering. The authors conclude that IM3OS is a rare, early-onset, clinically severe immune-related overlap syndrome with a high mortality rate, one that demands prompt recognition, structured multisystem assessment, close cardiorespiratory monitoring, and multidisciplinary management. The emphasis on early onset is critical: unlike many immune-related adverse events that emerge weeks to months into therapy, this overlap syndrome frequently appears within the first cycles of treatment, meaning that oncologists, emergency physicians, and cardiologists must maintain a high index of suspicion whenever an immunotherapy patient develops new ocular symptoms, weakness, or dyspnea. Delayed diagnosis of the cardiac component is particularly dangerous, since fulminant myocarditis can cause arrhythmia and heart failure with little warning.

The Barcelona team stresses an important caveat that tempers any attempt to derive a definitive treatment algorithm. Current evidence remains entirely observational, drawn from case reports, case series, and institutional cohorts, and therefore does not allow conclusions regarding therapeutic superiority of any particular regimen. In other words, no randomized trial has yet determined whether high-dose steroids outperform moderate doses, or whether adding intravenous immunoglobulin or specific immunosuppressants changes survival in this syndrome. Randomized evidence is only beginning to emerge for checkpoint inhibitor myocarditis in general, with investigator-initiated trials such as ATRIUM, which evaluates abatacept in hospitalized patients, representing the first steps toward evidence-based therapy.

For patients and clinicians alike, the study’s practical message is vigilance and teamwork. Because IM3OS simultaneously involves organs managed by different specialists, optimal care requires coordinated input from medical oncology, cardiology, neurology, and autoimmune disease units, precisely the multidisciplinary structure that the Hospital del Mar team assembled for its own patients. published in the journal Supportive Care in Cancer, the analysis consolidates a fragmented literature into a coherent clinical picture and provides treating physicians with realistic benchmarks for presentation, demographics, and management. As checkpoint inhibitors continue to expand into earlier disease stages and broader populations, syndromes like IM3OS will inevitably be encountered more often, making structured recognition pathways, close cardiorespiratory surveillance, and continued research into mechanism and therapy an urgent priority for the growing population of patients whose lives depend on both the power and the peril of unleashed immunity.

Subject of Research: Immune checkpoint inhibitor-related myocarditis, myositis, and myasthenia gravis overlap syndrome

Article Title: Immune checkpoint inhibitor-related myocarditis, myositis, and myasthenia gravis overlap syndrome: a single-center case series and systematic review

Article References: Immune checkpoint inhibitor-related myocarditis, myositis, and myasthenia gravis overlap syndrome: a single-center case series and systematic review. (n.d.). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-026-11363-w

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s00520-026-11363-w

Keywords: immune checkpoint inhibitors, immunotherapy, myocarditis, myositis, myasthenia gravis, overlap syndrome, immune-related adverse events, cancer, cardio-oncology, systematic review, case series, corticosteroids