Duckweeds, members of the family Lemnaceae, are the smallest flowering plants on Earth, yet they punch far above their weight nutritionally. Under optimal conditions they can produce six to ten times more protein per hectare than soybean, and they do so without requiring any arable land, thriving instead on the surface of nutrient-rich ponds, lakes and wetlands. Their amino acid profile aligns with World Health Organization recommendations for human nutrition, and previous work has shown that methionine and tryptophan levels exceed FAO guidelines by 76 percent and 24 percent respectively. Sri Lanka’s tropical climate and abundant inland water bodies make the country an ideal setting for year-round duckweed cultivation, yet until now the nutritional and bioactive properties of its native species had remained largely unexplored.

The research team, led by scientists at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies in Kandy, collected the four species from Puttalam, Soragune, Peradeniya and Bolgoda between May and June 2023, authenticated them at the National Herbarium in Peradeniya, and cultivated them under controlled greenhouse conditions before analysis. Proximate analysis revealed protein contents ranging from 17.34 to 26.45 percent of dry weight, with Landoltia punctata showing the highest protein levels of the four. Carbohydrate content ranged from 6.95 to 14.55 percent, crude fat from 3.69 to 3.92 percent, ash from 8.03 to 9.55 percent and crude fiber from 5.26 to 9.49 percent. Spirodela polyrhiza stood out for its significantly higher fat, carbohydrate and crude fiber contents, while Lemna minor had the highest moisture.

Mineral analysis using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy showed that potassium dominated the elemental profile, ranging from 20.17 to 50.07 grams per kilogram of dry weight, with Lemna perpusilla accumulating the most potassium and sodium. Calcium ranged from 11.03 to 25.46 grams per kilogram, with Spirodela polyrhiza also leading in magnesium and calcium. Crucially for food safety, the levels of lead and cadmium in all four species fell below the thresholds set by the World Health Organization and the European Commission, addressing one of the chief concerns about using duckweed grown in natural waters for human consumption, since these plants are well known to absorb heavy metals from contaminated aquatic environments.

Perhaps the most striking nutritional finding came from the fatty acid analysis. Omega-3 fatty acids, including alpha-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid, constituted between 44.42 and 50.38 percent of total fatty acids across all four species. Alpha-linolenic acid was the most abundant individual fatty acid in three of the species, ranging from 29.53 to 46.44 percent, followed by palmitic and linoleic acids. The unsaturated-to-saturated fatty acid ratios ranged from 1.54 to 2.71, and polyunsaturated fatty acids vastly outnumbered monounsaturated ones. The favorable omega-6 to omega-3 ratios, typically between 5:3 and 4:1, are associated with reduced risk of inflammation, cardiovascular disease and cancer, positioning duckweed as a rare plant-based source of these essential fats.

Beyond basic nutrition, the extracts displayed remarkable bioactivity. In alpha-amylase inhibition assays, which measure the potential to slow starch digestion and blunt post-meal blood sugar spikes, Spirodela polyrhiza and Landoltia punctata achieved an IC50 of just 0.14 micrograms per milliliter, while Lemna minor showed the strongest overall inhibition across all solvents. Every duckweed extract outperformed acarbose, the standard antidiabetic drug, which required an IC50 of 12.16 micrograms per milliliter. On the anti-obesity front, a 60 percent ethanol extract of Spirodela polyrhiza inhibited pancreatic lipase with an IC50 of 1.39 micrograms per milliliter, approaching the potency of the pharmaceutical drug orlistat, while Lemna minor consistently posted the lowest IC50 values across solvents.

The antimicrobial results were equally compelling. Spirodela polyrhiza produced the largest inhibition zone against Escherichia coli at 17.33 millimeters and showed notable activity against Aspergillus niger, while Landoltia punctata excelled against Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. Lemna minor inhibited both bacterial strains and both fungi, consistent with earlier studies. The researchers attribute these effects to a rich arsenal of secondary metabolites, including flavonoids, phenolics, tannins, saponins, terpenoids and phytosterols such as beta-sitosterol, which disrupt microbial membranes and cellular functions. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry identified rutin as the most abundant polyphenol in all four species, at 2.96 to 3.06 micrograms per milligram of dry matter, along with vanillic, gallic, chlorogenic, caffeic, ferulic and p-coumaric acids in varying combinations.

The phenolic profile may explain much of the observed bioactivity. Rutin, which was especially abundant in Lemna minor, is known to inhibit starch-digesting enzymes through competitive and mixed-type inhibition involving hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, and previous studies have found it more effective than quercetin at blocking alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase. Gallic acid and catechin, detected in Landoltia punctata and Lemna minor, are established lipase inhibitors, aligning with the strong anti-obesity activity observed in those species. Meanwhile, the p-coumaric and ferulic acids found in Spirodela polyrhiza and Landoltia punctata are known to disrupt microbial membranes, correlating with their antimicrobial performance. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the presence of five distinct amide absorption bands and carbohydrate-associated signals, providing molecular evidence of the protein-rich composition.

Safety testing using the brine shrimp lethality assay showed low to moderate toxicity, with LC50 values exceeding 4000 parts per million for the tested extracts, well above concentrations that would raise concern. The authors caution, however, that the study has limitations: the bioactivity assays were conducted in vitro, and animal or human trials will be needed to confirm therapeutic potential and bioavailability. Long-term toxicological data, sensory evaluation and processing techniques to improve palatability also remain unexplored. Because duckweed’s composition is highly sensitive to water quality, nutrient availability and environmental stress, careful management of cultivation conditions will be essential to ensure consistent safety and nutritional value.

Even with those caveats, the implications are significant for a developing country like Sri Lanka, where protein and micronutrient deficiencies persist. Duckweed requires no farmland, grows year-round in tropical wetlands, doubles as a wastewater treatment agent and can even serve as a platform for producing pharmaceutical biomolecules such as vaccines and antibodies. The researchers conclude that these four native species, with their high-quality protein, exceptional omega-3 content, potent enzyme inhibition and broad antimicrobial activity, are strong candidates for development as nutrient-dense, affordable functional foods. If future trials validate the laboratory findings, the humble duckweed floating quietly on Sri Lanka’s ponds could become a cornerstone of sustainable nutrition, proving that some of the most powerful solutions to global food and health challenges may be the smallest plants of all.

Subject of Research: The nutritional composition and bioactive properties of four duckweed species in Sri Lanka

Article Title: Nutritional composition and bioactive properties of four duckweed species in Sri Lanka

Article References: Nutritional composition and bioactive properties of four duckweed species in Sri Lanka. (n.d.). https://doi.org/10.1186/s44399-026-00043-z

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1186/s44399-026-00043-z

Keywords: duckweed, nutrition, omega-3 fatty acids, antidiabetic, anti-obesity, antimicrobial, polyphenols, protein, Sri Lanka, functional food, food security, phytochemicals

The study, titled ‘Deficiency of protein kinase Cδ reprograms macrophage immunometabolism to suppress pyroptosis and stabilize atherosclerotic plaques,’ examines how removing this single kinase alters the metabolic machinery inside macrophages and, as a consequence, changes the inflammatory character of atherosclerotic lesions. The finding is notable because it links three areas that have usually been studied in isolation: kinase signaling, immunometabolism, and the inflammatory form of cell death known as pyroptosis. By connecting them, the work suggests that a pathway long associated with immune activation may instead be a liability in chronic vascular disease.

To understand why this matters, it helps to recall what macrophages do inside an artery wall. These cells are recruited to sites where low-density lipoprotein particles have accumulated beneath the endothelial lining. Once there, they engulf lipids, and in doing so they can become the foam cells that give early plaques their fatty appearance. But macrophages are not passive containers. They are metabolically active, decision-making cells whose internal fuel choices, whether to burn glucose rapidly through glycolysis, whether to rely on mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, whether to draw on fatty acid oxidation, shape the inflammatory signals they emit. A plaque dominated by pro-inflammatory macrophages tends to be rich in degradative enzymes and death signals, thinning its protective fibrous cap and raising the risk of rupture.

Pyroptosis is one of the most incendiary of those death signals. Unlike ordinary apoptosis, which quietly packages cellular debris for removal, pyroptosis is a lytic, inflammatory death driven by the activation of inflammasomes, multiprotein complexes that trigger caspase enzymes to cleave gasdermin proteins. Cleaved gasdermins form pores in the cell membrane, causing the cell to swell, burst, and spill its contents, including potent inflammatory messengers such as interleukin-1 family cytokines, into the surrounding tissue. Within a plaque, waves of pyroptotic macrophage death enlarge the necrotic core, weaken the fibrous cap, and promote the thrombus formation that turns a stable lesion into a clinical emergency.

Protein kinase C delta has long been recognized as a versatile signaling molecule in immune cells, participating in pathways that regulate activation, migration, and death decisions. The new research asked a direct question: what happens to macrophage behavior, and to atherosclerotic disease, when this kinase is missing? The answer, according to the study, is that deficiency of the kinase reprograms macrophage immunometabolism, shifting the internal metabolic set points of the cells in a direction that suppresses pyroptosis. In other words, without protein kinase C delta, macrophages appear to become less prone to the explosive inflammatory death that destabilizes plaques.

The concept of immunometabolic reprogramming is central to interpreting this result. Macrophages adopt broadly distinguishable metabolic profiles depending on their activation state, and these profiles are not merely byproducts of inflammation; they actively reinforce it. A glycolytic shift, for example, supports the rapid production of inflammatory mediators, while a more oxidative, mitochondrial-oriented metabolism tends to accompany reparative, tissue-tolerant behavior. By showing that removing protein kinase C delta rewrites these metabolic choices, the study positions the kinase as a kind of metabolic gatekeeper whose activity licenses the inflammatory, pyroptosis-prone phenotype in the plaque environment.

The downstream consequence reported in the work is plaque stabilization. In atherosclerosis research, stability is assessed through structural features: the thickness of the fibrous cap that separates the thrombogenic necrotic core from the bloodstream, the size of that necrotic core, the collagen content of the cap, and the burden of dead and dying cells within the lesion. A plaque that retains a thick cap, a modest necrotic core, and abundant collagen is far less likely to rupture than one riddled with pyroptotic debris. The finding that PKC delta deficiency suppresses pyroptosis and stabilizes plaques implies that the kinase contributes to precisely the features that make lesions dangerous, and that its removal tilts lesions toward a safer architecture.

These results arrive amid a broader reassessment of inflammation as a therapeutic target in cardiovascular medicine. Landmark clinical trials have already demonstrated that blunting inflammatory signaling, for instance through interleukin-1 beta blockade or colchicine treatment, reduces cardiovascular events in selected patients, validating the idea that the immune component of atherosclerosis is druggable. Against that backdrop, a kinase that governs whether plaque macrophages die inflammatory deaths is an attractive candidate for intervention, because it acts upstream of the terminal events, inflammasome activation, gasdermin pore formation, cytokine release, and necrotic core expansion, that directly damage plaque integrity.

At the same time, the study invites caution. Protein kinase C delta participates in many physiological processes beyond the plaque, including immune defense against infection, platelet function, and the regulation of cell survival in multiple tissues. Any therapeutic strategy aimed at inhibiting the kinase, or at exploiting the metabolic programs it controls, would need to weigh the benefit of calmer plaque macrophages against the risk of impairing the host responses that depend on this enzyme. Translating a reprogramming effect observed in experimental models into a safe clinical approach will require a detailed map of which downstream metabolic and inflammasome pathways mediate the protection, and whether those pathways can be targeted selectively.

Even so, the conceptual contribution is substantial. The work reframes atherosclerotic plaque stability not simply as a matter of lipid lowering, which remains the foundation of therapy, but as a matter of immune cell fate, decided by intracellular metabolic wiring that can be shifted by manipulating a single signaling node. If the findings hold up across models and, eventually, in human tissue, they suggest that future treatment could combine lipid management with agents that nudge plaque macrophages away from pyroptosis and toward a stable, reparative state. In a disease that kills millions each year largely through plaque rupture, teaching immune cells to keep their composure may prove to be one of the more consequential ideas in modern cardiovascular research.

Subject of Research: The role of protein kinase C delta deficiency in reprogramming macrophage immunometabolism to suppress pyroptosis and stabilize atherosclerotic plaques

Article Title: Deficiency of protein kinase Cδ reprograms macrophage immunometabolism to suppress pyroptosis and stabilize atherosclerotic plaques

Article References: Lien, C.-F., Chang, H.-Y., Yu, S.-H., Cho, R.-L., Chen, S.-J., Kuo, T.-T., Chong, P. C.-T., Ye, C.-H., Lin, F.-Y., Wu, W.-L., Lin, S.-H., Tsai, C.-S., & Lin, C.-S. (2026). Deficiency of protein kinase Cδ reprograms macrophage immunometabolism to suppress pyroptosis and stabilize atherosclerotic plaques. Experimental & Molecular Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-026-01842-9

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1038/s12276-026-01842-9

Keywords: protein kinase C delta, macrophages, immunometabolism, pyroptosis, atherosclerosis, plaque stability, inflammasome, foam cells, cardiovascular disease, inflammation, Deficiency, protein

The dietary backdrop is sobering. Roughly 35 percent of Indians identify as vegetarian, yet even among meat, fish, and egg consumers, protein intake falls well short of both national recommendations and the EAT-Lancet planetary health targets. Rice and wheat contribute more than half of daily caloric intake, and their protein content is modest, at approximately 7 and 12 grams per 100 grams respectively. This cereal-heavy pattern is linked to persistent protein-energy malnutrition, with prevalence among children under five reported between 18 and 56 percent in various studies. The review’s authors argue that simply exhorting people to eat more protein is insufficient; the food system itself must supply affordable, culturally familiar, protein-dense options that do not depend on irrigation, expensive inputs, or fragile supply chains.

To identify candidates, the researchers conducted a structured literature search on Google Scholar using keywords spanning underutilized crops, indigenous foods, neglected species, and protein-rich plants, supplemented by reference-list screening. Species were admitted only if they met a battery of criteria: at least 15 percent protein on a dry-weight basis, adaptability across India’s arid, semi-arid, and tropical zones, multipurpose utility such as livestock feed, green manure, or biological nitrogen fixation, and compatibility with low-input farming. The 15 percent cutoff deliberately exceeds wheat’s protein content, ensuring shortlisted crops meaningfully outperform staples. Out of an estimated 25,000 edible underutilized species in India, 28 crops passed the screen. Legumes ranged from 17 to 35 grams of protein per 100 grams of dry seed, leafy greens from 16 to 28 grams per 100 grams of dried leaves, and edible seeds and pods from 20 to 25 grams per 100 grams of flour.

The agronomic case for these species is compelling. Jack bean and sword bean tolerate the marginal soils of arid and semi-arid zones, while winged bean adapts to acidic, well-drained soils and withstands drought, temperature extremes, and pests. Velvet bean thrives in warm, high-rainfall regions and fixes atmospheric nitrogen. Horse gram, cowpea, field bean, rice bean, adzuki bean, and kidney bean are distributed across southern, northeastern, and Himalayan zones, each matched to local rainfall and soil conditions. Leafy species such as drumstick, or moringa, grow widely across peninsular India, while others like jaiur, jarem, and water celery occupy specialized niches in the Darjeeling Himalayas, northeastern states, and Manipur. Many of these plants fit naturally into home gardens, intercropping systems, and agroforestry, offering year-round protein access without displacing staple production.

To understand where each crop currently sits in India’s food landscape, the team triangulated three independent evidence streams. Culinary documentation drew on regional cookbooks, food blogs, YouTube channels, and cultural archives, yielding 207 unique recipes representing 15 countries. Market mapping scanned major e-commerce platforms including Amazon, Flipkart, and IndiaMART, alongside niche organic and specialty sites, for raw, processed, powdered, and value-added products. Innovation mapping searched academic databases for applied food science, capturing 101 studies on germination, fermentation, extrusion, flour formulation, and product development. Cross-referencing the three streams revealed a highly uneven picture: only a handful of species, notably moringa, horse gram, field bean, kidney bean, and adzuki bean, appear simultaneously in kitchens, markets, and laboratories.

Moringa stands out as the exemplar of full translation. Once a backyard vegetable, it now appears globally in fortified bakery products, noodles, beverages, and supplements, a trajectory the authors attribute to its convergence across all three domains. Horse gram and adzuki bean retain strong culinary roots while entering composite flours, extruded snacks, and fortified weaning foods. By contrast, velvet bean, perilla, and pot cassia have taken a “supplement-first” route, marketed as powders, capsules, and extracts rather than everyday foods. Winged bean, field bean, and sword bean remain “culinary but not commercial,” embedded in regional diets but absent from value-added formats. Wild species such as vegetable fern, dogal tree leaves, and water celery barely register in any stream, reflecting localized consumption, ecological scarcity, or safety concerns.

The technical literature reveals consistent processing strategies. Partial substitution of legume flours or leaf powders at 5 to 25 percent into cereal products reliably raises protein and micronutrient density, but sensory acceptance declines when substitution exceeds roughly 20 percent, underscoring the need for formulation optimization. Germination, fermentation, extrusion, enzymatic pretreatment, and protein isolation all improve digestibility and reduce anti-nutritional compounds such as phytic acid, glucosinolates, and phenolics. Documented successes include moringa-fortified biscuits and noodles, lablab-enriched breads and macaroni, velvet-bean weaning foods, and winged-bean and adzuki-based tofu, tempeh, and protein isolates. Yet most innovations remain at laboratory or pilot scale, with few studies addressing shelf life, cost-effectiveness, or consumer segmentation. Notably, India accounts for roughly half of documented innovations, while Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Africa contribute about 40 percent, and Western contexts about 7 percent, revealing an Indian strength in culinary integration but a gap in industrial-scale processing research.

The barriers to scaling are as much social and institutional as they are biochemical. A persistent stigma labels many traditional vegetables as “poor people’s food,” eroding demand precisely as urbanization fragments the oral culinary knowledge that sustained them. Farmers often lack access to quality seed, reflecting weak seed systems and extension services that have historically prioritized yield-focused cereals and major pulses. Regulatory ambiguity surrounds novel and medicinally associated species, and quality standards are inconsistent. Meanwhile, detailed amino acid profiles and protein digestibility data, essential for estimating true dietary contribution, remain largely uncharacterized for most shortlisted species. The authors identify these knowledge gaps as a critical constraint on both product development and nutrition policy.

In response, the study proposes a multi-pathway framework linking six domains: product development, culinary promotion, ingredient supply chains, public nutrition programs, education and behavior change, and research-policy integration. Under the product pathway, food technology institutes, small and medium enterprises, and start-ups would convert locally accepted crops into fortified staples, instant mixes, and extruded snacks. Culinary promotion would enlist chefs, culinary schools, and state nutrition missions to normalize consumption through recognizable dishes, such as folding moringa leaves into palak paneer. Supply-chain development would engage farmer producer organizations and processing hubs to aggregate and standardize flours, while public procurement through FSSAI, the Integrated Child Development Services, and the Mid-Day Meal Scheme could institutionalize demand, with women’s self-help groups as suppliers. Protein literacy campaigns and clinic-based counselling would complete the demand side, supported by research on amino acid composition, bioavailability, sensory acceptance, and varietal improvement.

The review’s ultimate argument is that protein security in India is a systemic problem that cannot be solved by agronomy or food technology alone. The 28 crops it catalogues already possess the nutritional density, agroecological resilience, and cultural embeddedness needed to matter; what they lack is coordinated investment in seed systems, processing, regulation, and consumer familiarity. By aligning traditional knowledge with modern food science and linking smallholder production with institutional demand, the authors argue, India can move these neglected species from the margins of subsistence to the core of sustainable food systems, advancing national nutrition goals alongside Sustainable Development Goals 2 and 12. The opportunity, they conclude, is timely: climate change is already stressing cereal monocultures, and crops evolved to thrive on marginal land with minimal water may prove among the most resilient assets in the national food portfolio.

Subject of Research: Underutilized high protein crops in India and pathways for scaling their contribution to protein security

Article Title: Underutilized high protein crops in India and pathways for scaling their contribution to protein security

Article References: Tamma, V., Kumar, P. R., & Goh, E. (2026). Underutilized high protein crops in India and pathways for scaling their contribution to protein security. Discover Agriculture, 4(1), Article 284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44279-026-00751-9

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44279-026-00751-9

Keywords: Underutilized, high, protein, crops, India, pathways, scaling, contribution, security, scientific research