The research, published in Frontiers in Psychology by Juan Gao of Hunan University of Arts and Science and Lan Yang of The Education University of Hong Kong, examined 452 students from a Chinese secondary vocational school. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory, the study traced a statistical pathway from how students perceive feedback, through how actively they participate in the feedback process, to how positively they experience learning emotionally. The findings extend feedback research from a question about what students receive to a question about what students do with it.

Feedback orientation is a construct originally developed in organizational psychology by Linderbaum and Levy to describe an individual’s general receptivity to evaluative information. In educational settings, it comprises four dimensions: feedback utility, the perceived value of feedback for learning and improvement; feedback self-efficacy, confidence in one’s ability to understand and apply it; feedback social awareness, sensitivity to the interpersonal purposes and consequences of feedback exchanges; and feedback accountability, a willingness to accept responsibility for responding to feedback. Crucially, feedback orientation concerns not the amount or quality of feedback provided by teachers, but students’ dispositions toward making use of it.

The theoretical engine behind the study is Self-Determination Theory, the influential motivational framework proposed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, which holds that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are basic psychological needs that shape the quality of motivation, engagement, and well-being. From this perspective, feedback supports learning not simply because it identifies a performance discrepancy, but because students experience it in ways that permit competent, self-endorsed, and relationally secure participation. Feedback that is clear, actionable, and appropriately challenging may strengthen students’ confidence in their ability to improve, whereas vague or controlling feedback may reinforce uncertainty and perceived incompetence.

The study’s central intermediary variable is agentic engagement, a concept introduced by John Reeve and C. M. Tseng as a fourth aspect of student engagement alongside behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement. Agentic engagement captures students’ intentional and constructive contributions to the flow of instruction: asking questions, expressing preferences or difficulties, requesting clarification, and seeking more useful learning support. In feedback contexts, these actions may be particularly important, because students often need elaboration or opportunities to discuss how feedback applies to their work. A feedback-oriented student may be more inclined to ask for clarification, communicate learning needs, and seek feedback that can be acted upon.

Methodologically, the researchers administered a 12-item short form of the Feedback Orientation Scale, a five-item agentic engagement subscale, and an eight-item academic emotions measure through an online survey platform. Confirmatory factor analysis compared four theoretically plausible representations of the feedback orientation scale: a one-factor model, a correlated four-factor model, a second-order model, and a bifactor model. The one-factor model provided the weakest fit, indicating that the 12 items should not be treated as a single undifferentiated construct. The correlated four-factor, second-order, and bifactor models all showed good fit, supporting feedback orientation as a multidimensional but strongly integrated construct. Given the theoretical conceptualization of feedback orientation as an overarching disposition, the second-order model was retained for subsequent structural equation modeling.

The structural model demonstrated good overall fit, with a comparative fit index of 0.971, a Tucker-Lewis index of 0.966, a root mean square error of approximation of 0.067, and a standardized root mean square residual of 0.028. The results were striking. Feedback orientation was positively associated with agentic engagement, with a standardized coefficient of 0.662, explaining roughly 44 percent of the variance in students’ proactive participation. Agentic engagement, in turn, was positively associated with positive academic emotions, with a standardized coefficient of 0.482. The indirect association from feedback orientation through agentic engagement to academic emotions was also statistically significant, with a standardized estimate of 0.319, tested using 5,000 bias-corrected bootstrap resamples. A remaining direct association between feedback orientation and academic emotions, with a standardized coefficient of 0.241, indicated that agentic engagement did not account for the entire relationship.

Academic emotions themselves were modeled as a higher-order construct represented by enjoyment and hope, two highly related positive achievement emotions. Prior research by Reinhard Pekrun and colleagues has shown that emotions such as enjoyment, hope, anxiety, frustration, and boredom shape students’ attention, persistence, use of learning strategies, and engagement. Feedback is emotionally consequential because students may appraise it as informative and manageable, or as threatening, unclear, and difficult to use. Students who perceived feedback as valuable, felt capable of interpreting and using it, recognized its interpersonal significance, and accepted responsibility for responding to it tended to report more positive academic emotions.

The authors are careful to frame these findings within their statistical boundaries. The design was cross-sectional, single-school, predominantly female, and self-report based, with 98.9 percent of participants female and most enrolled in preschool education or early childhood care programs. The estimates therefore represent concurrent associations, not evidence of temporal ordering or causal mediation. The study did not directly measure autonomy, competence, relatedness, or teacher responsiveness, so claims that agentic engagement represents the satisfaction of basic psychological needs should be moderated. A more defensible conclusion is that the results are consistent with a Self-Determination Theory-informed account in which feedback-related dispositions and proactive participation are associated with students’ emotional experiences.

The practical implications, though suggestive rather than experimentally established, point toward a richer vision of feedback in vocational classrooms. Teachers could frame feedback as information that helps students interpret performance standards and identify a feasible next action, rather than as correction alone. Students’ questions, uncertainty, and requests for explanation may be understood as potentially productive contributions to the feedback process, provided the instructional environment acknowledges and responds to them. When initiative is ignored or discouraged, the same efforts may fail to yield supportive learning experiences. The study positions feedback orientation as a relevant learner resource in vocational education while underscoring the need for longitudinal, multi-method, and multi-site research to establish temporal processes and examine whether these relationships generalize across vocational contexts.

Subject of Research: Educational Psychology

Article Title: From feedback orientation to academic emotions: the indirect association through agentic engagement among secondary vocational students

Article References: Gao, J., & Yang, L. (2026). From feedback orientation to academic emotions: the indirect association through agentic engagement among secondary vocational students. Frontiers in Psychology, 17, Article 1959575. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1959575

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1959575

Keywords: feedback orientation, agentic engagement, academic emotions, vocational education, self-determination theory, student engagement, educational psychology, feedback, orientation, academic, emotions, indirect