The team, led by Traiphop Phahom of Suranaree University of Technology together with Kamolwan Soubsub, Gaelle Roudaut, and Singhanat Phoungchandang, harvested flowers from a farm in Buriram province, Thailand, in March and April 2024. Petals were separated by hand, cut into half-centimeter strips, frozen at minus 20 degrees Celsius, and thawed slowly overnight to ensure a uniform starting material. They then compared three approaches: conventional convective hot-air drying at 50, 60, and 70 degrees Celsius; intermittent microwave drying at 450, 720, and 900 watts; and freeze drying, which served as the gold-standard control because its low temperatures and vacuum conditions minimize thermal and oxidative damage.

The speed difference was staggering. Convective drying took between 6,120 and 12,420 seconds, meaning up to nearly three and a half hours of continuous heat exposure. Intermittent microwave drying finished in just 220 to 340 seconds, roughly a 97 percent reduction in processing time. Raising the air temperature from 50 to 70 degrees Celsius cut convective drying time by about half, while increasing microwave power from 450 to 900 watts shortened it by roughly a third. Drying rates under microwaves ran about twenty times higher than under hot air, a consequence of volumetric heating: microwaves generate heat inside the tissue itself, creating strong internal vapor pressure gradients that drive moisture outward far faster than surface convection ever could.

To describe this behavior mathematically, the researchers fitted their data to five classical thin-layer drying models, including Newton, Page, and Fick’s second law. The Midilli-Kucuk model emerged as the clear winner, achieving coefficients of determination of at least 0.999 with the lowest error statistics across every condition. Effective moisture diffusivity, calculated from Fick’s law, ranged from about 1.7 times ten to the minus seventh square meters per second under hot air to nearly 7 times ten to the minus sixth under microwaves, roughly a twenty-five-fold difference. Arrhenius-type analysis yielded an activation energy of 28.05 kilojoules per mole for convective drying and 16.05 watts per gram for microwave drying, parameters that quantify how sensitively water movement responds to temperature or power, respectively.

Structure and color told their own story. Using image analysis, the team tracked shrinkage in two phases: a rapid collapse early in drying, accounting for 83 to 95 percent of total shrinkage, followed by a slower plateau. Microwave-dried petals shrank less overall, between 51.1 and 54.1 percent, than hot-air samples, which lost up to 62.6 percent of their original area. The explanation lies in heat transfer physics. Slow convective drying lets a dry, hard crust form at the surface while the interior stays above its glass transition temperature longer, promoting cellular collapse. Rapid microwave heating, by contrast, generates internal vapor pressure that can temporarily prop up the cellular structure and even create porosity. Freeze-dried petals kept the highest lightness and the strongest red-purple hue, while both heat-based methods pushed the petals toward brown and dark-brown tones through nonenzymatic browning, with the mildest hot-air treatment at 50 degrees Celsius showing the smallest total color difference.

Antioxidant assays revealed a nuanced hierarchy. Freeze drying and the hottest convective treatment at 70 degrees Celsius produced the highest total phenolic content, at up to 139.54 milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per gram of dry weight, likely because rapid moisture removal curtailed enzymatic oxidation while cell wall damage improved extractability. For flavonoids, moderate microwave power at 450 watts actually beat freeze drying, reaching 148.09 milligrams of quercetin equivalents per gram. Radical-scavenging and ferric-reducing activities followed a similar pattern: freeze drying led, low-to-moderate microwave power came close, and prolonged hot-air drying scored lowest. The culprit for convective drying is cumulative exposure, which enables enzymatic oxidation by polyphenol oxidase, thermal degradation of phenolic structures, and oxidative polymerization. Excessive microwave power at 900 watts also backfired, as localized overheating degraded heat-sensitive compounds, confirming that lower power offers the best balance between speed and preservation.

The most technically ambitious part of the study was metabolite profiling by liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Across seven drying conditions analyzed in triplicate, the team annotated 125 phenolic compounds, about half of all detected metabolites, divided into 81 flavonoids, 25 phenolic acids, 14 tannins, and 5 stilbenes, all at confidence level 2 of the Metabolomics Standards Initiative. Compounds such as ellagic acid, quercetin, kaempferol-3-glucoside, delphinidin-3-glucoside, and isorhamnetin correlated strongly with antioxidant activity. Intriguingly, the phenolic acid class correlated negatively with the classic Folin-Ciocalteu total phenolic measurement, a finding the authors attribute to the assay’s nonspecific response to any reducing compound, including Maillard reaction products formed during thermal drying. The lesson is that colorimetric assays measure total reducing capacity, not true phenolic content, and only compound-specific profiling can resolve what drying actually does to individual molecules.

Moisture sorption behavior, critical for shelf life, was measured with a dynamic vapor sorption analyzer at 25 degrees Celsius across relative humidities from 0 to 90 percent. The isotherms showed the classic Type II sigmoid shape, with more than half of the total moisture uptake occurring above a water activity of 0.75, driven by hydrophilic carbohydrates, proteins, and fiber. Among four sorption models tested, the Peleg model fit best, while the BET model estimated monolayer moisture contents of roughly 4.1 to 4.8 percent dry basis, the level at which dried foods are most stable. By setting water activity to 0.6, the conventional upper limit for safe storage of dried foods, the researchers calculated a critical moisture content of 10.75 to 11.40 percent dry basis, meaning the petals remain stable as long as moisture is kept below about 10 percent.

Hierarchical cluster analysis, validated by a cophenetic correlation coefficient of 0.93, grouped the treatments into three distinct clusters: freeze drying alone, all hot-air conditions, and all microwave conditions. Crucially, the microwave cluster sat closer to freeze drying in the quality space than the hot-air cluster did, indicating that microwaves better preserve the physicochemical and bioactive character of the petals. Within the microwave family, 450 and 720 watts offered the most favorable compromise between quality retention and processing speed. The practical implication is significant for the nutraceutical, functional food, and natural colorant industries: intermittent microwave drying could serve as a fast, energy-efficient alternative to expensive freeze drying for heat-sensitive botanical materials. The authors note that metabolite identities remain tentative until confirmed with authentic standards, and they call for long-term storage stability studies and formulation trials to carry red water lily petals from the pond to the product shelf.

Subject of Research: Effects of drying technologies on metabolite profile, drying kinetics, quality retention, and moisture sorption of red water lily petals

Article Title: Shaping metabolite profile, dehydration kinetics, quality retention, and sorption properties of red water lily ( Nymphaea x rubra ) petals through drying technology

Article References: Phahom, T., Soubsub, K., Roudaut, G., & Phoungchandang, S. (2026). Shaping metabolite profile, dehydration kinetics, quality retention, and sorption properties of red water lily (Nymphaea x rubra) petals through drying technology. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 31, Article 103337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2026.103337

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1016/j.jafr.2026.103337

Keywords: red water lily, Nymphaea x rubra, microwave drying, freeze drying, convective drying, antioxidants, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, metabolite profiling, LC-MS, moisture sorption isotherm, food drying