Finger flutings constitute a unique form of rock art wherein fingers are dragged across soft mineral deposits on cave surfaces, leaving behind linear impressions. Present in pitch-dark caves across Europe and Australia, these enigmatic traces date back tens of thousands—and in some cases hundreds of thousands—of years. The oldest discovered examples in France have been ascribed to Neanderthals, potentially extending human artistic activities back approximately 300,000 years. Despite their age and significance, fundamental questions about the makers of these marks—in particular, their sex—have remained unanswered, partly due to the limitations of traditional archaeological methodologies.

Historically, attempts to decode the identity of fluting artists relied on biometric analyses such as finger length ratios or hand size assessments. However, these approaches proved fraught with inconsistencies due to several confounding variables. Variability in finger pressure during fluting, diverse surface textures, and pigment distortions often compromised the reliability of measurements. Moreover, substantial morphological overlap between males and females diminished the effectiveness of purely anatomical markers. To address these challenges, the Griffith research team employed a digital archaeology approach that circumvents these anthropometric assumptions and applies machine learning techniques to the problem.

Central to this study were two controlled experiments involving 96 adult participants who each created a series of finger flutings under two conditions. The first involved a tactile session using an innovative moonmilk clay substitute designed to replicate the texture and responsiveness of real cave surfaces. The second took place in an immersive VR environment utilizing Meta Quest 3 headsets, allowing the team to simulate the act of fluting in a virtual setting. Each participant produced nine flutings twice—once physically and once virtually—generating a comprehensive dataset for subsequent analysis.

The collected images of the flutings served as input for training two prevalent image-recognition models. These neural networks were tasked with learning subtle visual patterns that might correlate with the sex of the creator. Crucially, the team sought to avoid overfitting—a common pitfall where models perform well on training data but fail to generalize to new, unseen samples. Rigorous validation metrics were employed to assess whether the AI was genuinely discerning intrinsic features of the flutings or merely memorizing extraneous artifacts unique to the experimental setup.

Results demonstrated a notable contrast between the VR and tactile datasets. Models trained on tactile replicates achieved approximately 84 percent accuracy in sex classification, suggesting that tangible interactions with the moonmilk-like substrate captured meaningful discriminative features. Additionally, one model exhibited a strong discrimination score indicative of reliable pattern recognition. By contrast, models processing VR-generated flutings failed to deliver consistent or balanced performance, underlining current technological limitations in simulating the nuanced physicality of ancient finger marks within virtual environments.

Nevertheless, the tactile models revealed some reliance on dataset-specific characteristics, such as minor artifacts introduced during the creation or image capture processes, rather than universal features of finger flutings themselves. This finding underscores the necessity for continued refinement, including diversification of datasets and enhanced feature extraction methods, to develop robust tools applicable across varied archaeological contexts. The researchers emphasize the iterative nature of this endeavor, positioning their framework as a foundational proof of concept that can evolve with further contributions from the interdisciplinary scientific community.

The study exemplifies the fusion of experimental archaeology with state-of-the-art machine learning workflows to investigate prehistoric cultural materials. By providing detailed protocols, open-source code, and comprehensive datasets, the team encourages replication, scrutiny, and expansion of their work. Such openness not only fosters transparency but also accelerates methodological advances essential for transforming digital archaeology into a rigorous and reproducible science, capable of addressing questions previously relegated to speculative interpretation.

Beyond archaeology, the implications of this research reverberate across fields such as forensic science, cognitive psychology, and human-computer interaction. Understanding how ancient humans engaged with their environments and expressed identity through subtle manual gestures enriches our comprehension of cognitive evolution and social dynamics. Moreover, the technical advances in tactile simulation and machine vision may inspire novel applications ranging from crime scene analysis to enhanced virtual training systems, highlighting the broad potential of this interdisciplinary approach.

Dr. Andrea Jalandoni, the study’s lead digital archaeologist from the Griffith Centre for Social and Cultural Research, articulated the cultural significance of identifying fluting creators. “Determining whether men or women made these marks can have profound real-world effects,” she noted, citing scenarios such as regulating site access based on cultural traditions. Previously employed biometric methods proved insufficient for such delicate distinctions, making the digital archaeology path not only innovative but necessary to address deeply rooted anthropological inquiries.

Contributing computational expertise, Dr. Gervase Tuxworth from the School of Information and Communication Technology explained that while the results are preliminary, they open an intriguing window into ancient human signatures preserved through millennia-old gestures. “Our models highlight promising avenues but also reveal challenges intrinsic to interpreting prehistoric art through modern technology,” he reflected, emphasizing the nuanced interplay between physical interaction data and digital representation.

Co-author Dr. Robert Haubt from the Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution underscored the study’s broader impact and future trajectory: “We’ve laid a scalable digital foundation that others can build upon, critique, and apply in diverse contexts. This democratization is key to transforming initial proof of concept into reliable archaeological tools that deepen our understanding of human history.” The published findings in Scientific Reports mark an important milestone, demonstrating the feasibility of integrating tactile archaeology, VR experimentation, and AI-driven analysis to unravel the identities hidden within ancient cave walls.

As machine learning and archaeological methodologies progressively intertwine, this groundbreaking research symbolizes a paradigm shift in how scientists probe the behavior and cultural expressions of early humans. While challenges remain, especially in refining data generalizability and simulation fidelity, the innovative digital archaeology framework developed by the Griffith team charts a promising path toward uncovering forgotten narratives embedded in the very fabric of prehistoric art.

Subject of Research: People

Article Title: Training AI to identify ancient artists

News Publication Date: 16-Oct-2025

Web References: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-18098-4

References: Using digital archaeology and machine learning to determine sex in finger flutings, Scientific Reports

Image Credits: Andrea Jalandoni

Keywords: Archaeology, Artificial intelligence

The Schöningen spears, first discovered in the mid-1990s, had originally been estimated to be around 400,000 years old, though this figure was later revised to about 300,000 years based on the analysis of sediment layers underlying the archaeological site. However, these earlier methods lacked direct material evidence from the exact depositional strata where the spears were found, leaving chronological uncertainties. The latest study overcomes this limitation by employing an innovative biochemical dating technique that directly examines the fossils embedded in the same sediment layer as these ancient weapons.

Central to the study’s success is amino acid geochronology, a sophisticated method refined by a team led by Professor Kirsty Penkman from the University of York. This approach capitalizes on the molecular properties of amino acids, which exist in two mirror-image forms, or enantiomers: left-handed (L) and right-handed (D) molecules. Living organisms predominantly synthesize proteins composed of L-amino acids, but after death, these amino acids undergo a slow and predictable transformation into their D-forms. By quantifying the ratio of L to D amino acids in preserved biominerals, scientists can establish the time elapsed since the organism’s death, providing a direct chronological marker.

The research team analyzed the opercula—small, door-like structures—of freshwater snails belonging to the genus Bithynia discovered within the sedimentary matrix that housed the Schöningen spears. These opercula are composed of a mineral that seals the amino acids inside, effectively serving as natural time capsules that retain biochemical signals for hundreds of thousands of years. By sampling and measuring the amino acid racemization in these snail opercula, the researchers precisely dated the sediment layer, offering a direct age for the context in which the spears were embedded.

To corroborate their findings, the team extended their analysis to include similar biochemical tests on horse teeth and microfossils called ostracods recovered from the same location. These additional lines of evidence were explored by an independent group in Madrid, Spain, whose findings aligned with the amino acid data from York. This interdisciplinary and cross-regional validation solidifies the consensus that the Schöningen site is younger than previously believed, dating to around 200,000 years ago.

The revised dating holds immense significance for our understanding of Neanderthal behavior. The Schöningen spears represent the earliest direct evidence for spearthrower-style hunting technology, implying advanced cognitive abilities such as complex planning, communication, and social cooperation. This discovery pushes the boundaries of what is known about Neanderthal firearm-related capabilities and their hunting strategies, revealing an evolutionary leap in hunting efficiency and group coordination far earlier than anticipated.

The site itself offers a rare glimpse into an ancient lacustrine environment where rapid sedimentation preserved organic materials with exceptional fidelity. Alongside the spears, archaeologists have uncovered butchered remains of horses, indicating highly organized hunting practices targeting sizeable and challenging prey. Previous investigations by institutions such as the MONREPOS Archaeological Research Centre have revealed evidence for seasonal hunting in this region, with over 50 individual horses documented, suggesting coordinated group efforts with specialized roles.

By dating the spears to around 200,000 years ago, the study implies that Neanderthals had reached a sophisticated level of societal organization by this time, involving strategic planning, knowledge transmission, and perhaps even the early forms of language or symbolic communication. These findings challenge earlier perspectives that tended to view Neanderthals as cognitively inferior to Homo sapiens and paint a far richer picture of their cultural complexity.

Amino acid geochronology, as a biochemical clock, represents a monumental leap forward in archaeological dating techniques. Its ability to directly date fossilized biominerals in diverse sedimentary contexts worldwide opens new avenues for revisiting numerous Palaeolithic sites whose ages have hitherto been ambiguous or disputed. This novel approach thus has the potential to reshape timelines and interpretations of human evolution on a global scale, enhancing our understanding of archaic human behavior and technological progress.

Professor Kirsty Penkman, reflecting on the study’s impact, highlighted that the precision of this dating method can reshape prehistorians’ and archaeologists’ views on the Middle Palaeolithic era. By unlocking previously inaccessible chronological information, it reveals a more dynamic and intricate pattern of hominin activity and the development of complex social behaviors that underpin human evolution itself.

Dr. Jarod Hutson, the study’s first author, emphasized that the sophistication required for the manufacture and use of the Schöningen spears underscores advanced neural and social capacities among Neanderthals. The new dating aligns the site with a constellation of contemporaneous archaeological evidence pointing to a transformative period in early human hunting behavior—one marked by increased cooperation, strategic communication, and technological innovation.

The collaborative nature of the research, involving institutions across Europe and North America, testifies to the ongoing commitment to unraveling the intricacies of human prehistory through cutting-edge science. Combining biochemical dating with archaeological and paleoenvironmental data has yielded a coherent and compelling narrative, reinforcing the Schöningen spears as one of the most iconic testaments to early Neanderthal ingenuity and societal complexity.

As amino acid geochronology continues to be refined and applied to other archaeological contexts, it is poised to revolutionize our comprehension of the timing and pace of human evolution. The technique’s ability to capture molecular time signals locked within fossilized shells and teeth represents a powerful new tool in the ongoing quest to illuminate the deep past of our species and our closest extinct relatives.

-ENDS-

Subject of Research: Revised dating of the Schöningen hunting spears to approximately 200,000 years ago, indicating intensification of Neanderthal cooperative behavior during the Middle Palaeolithic.

Article Title: Revised age for Schöningen hunting spears indicates intensification of Neanderthal cooperative behavior around 200,000 years ago

News Publication Date: 9-May-2025

Web References:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adv0752

Image Credits:
Photo: MINKUSIMAGES. With kind permission of the copyright holder: Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege (NLD)

Keywords:
Prehistoric archaeology, Archaeological sites, Middle Palaeolithic, Neanderthal behavior, Amino acid geochronology, Schöningen spears, Human evolution, Biochemical dating, Cooperative hunting, Archaeological dating methods