The study is grounded in two complementary theoretical frameworks. Resource-Based Theory, first advanced by Birger Wernerfelt in 1984, holds that a firm’s competitiveness depends on its ability to access and deploy valuable resources, including financial capital, human capital, and social networks. Institutional Theory, by contrast, explains how external structures, norms, and regulations shape entrepreneurial behaviour and outcomes. By integrating these perspectives, the researchers sought to capture a dual dynamic: women entrepreneurs may lack critical resources, and the institutional environment may simultaneously govern whether those resources can be acquired at all. This recursive relationship, in which institutional barriers restrict resource acquisition and resource scarcity limits the capacity to navigate institutional constraints, sits at the heart of the study’s findings.

To investigate these dynamics empirically, the researchers targeted a population of 11,275 female entrepreneurs registered with the Small Enterprise Development Agency in eThekwini Municipality, spanning industries from personal services and transportation to trade, construction, agriculture, manufacturing, and hospitality. Using Yamane’s formula, they calculated a required sample of 386 respondents and administered closed-ended questionnaires in person, drawing on a five-point Likert scale. Of the 350 questionnaires returned, 349 were deemed usable for analysis, representing a 90.6 percent response rate. The study received ethical approval from the Institutional Research Ethics Committee at Durban University of Technology, and informed consent was obtained from all participants between February and May 2024.

The demographic profile of the sample is itself revealing. Approximately 62 percent of respondents were aged between 21 and 35 years, and 96 percent identified as African Black women. Most respondents, 84.2 percent, had between zero and nine years of entrepreneurial experience, and 60.2 percent reported secondary education as their highest qualification. The researchers note that this concentration is particularly significant in the South African context, where apartheid systematically excluded Black women from economic participation, access to capital, and entrepreneurial opportunities. The challenges identified in the study must therefore be understood not only through the lens of gender but also in relation to race and historical structural inequalities.

Before examining the relationships between variables, the researchers employed Exploratory Factor Analysis using Principal Axis Factoring with Promax rotation to identify latent constructs underpinning women entrepreneurs’ experiences. The suitability of the data was confirmed using the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy, which returned a value of 0.913, well above the recommended minimum of 0.60, and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity, which was statistically significant at χ²(231) = 4134.443, p < 0.001. Four factors with eigenvalues greater than one were retained, collectively accounting for 58.413 percent of the common variance. These dimensions were named Entrepreneurial Constraints, Entrepreneurial Support, Entrepreneurial Participation, and Business Environment and Regulatory Climate. All retained items loaded above the 0.50 threshold, and reliability analysis confirmed internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.803 to 0.879 across the four constructs.

The descriptive statistics paint a stark picture. Entrepreneurial Constraints recorded the highest composite mean at 4.16 on the five-point scale, indicating that respondents generally agreed they faced substantial barriers. At the item level, lack of capital for business expansion recorded the highest mean at 4.48, followed by lack of skills to grow the business at 4.38 and low profitability limiting the ability to employ additional staff at 4.37. Male domination in certain industries was also strongly perceived as a constraint, with a mean of 4.24. Respondents further agreed that inadequate education, cultural barriers, and family-related interference represented challenges to their entrepreneurial activities, demonstrating that the barriers confronting women entrepreneurs extend well beyond finance into interconnected resource, capability, cultural, and gender-related dimensions.

In sharp contrast, perceptions of entrepreneurial support were overwhelmingly negative. The composite mean for Entrepreneurial Support was just 1.76, falling within the disagreement range. Financial support recorded the lowest item mean at 1.46, indicating strong disagreement that adequate funding was available, while infrastructural support, business training, and business guidance all fell within the disagreement category. Mentorship recorded a comparatively higher mean of 2.64, though respondents remained generally neutral about the adequacy of ideas received from mentors. Perceptions of the Business Environment and Regulatory Climate were similarly unfavourable, with a composite mean of 1.76. Satisfaction with employment legislation recorded the lowest item mean at 1.50, corresponding to strong disagreement, while tax and levy fairness and tax policy satisfaction also fell within the disagreement range.

The regression analysis, however, reveals why these perceptions matter. With Entrepreneurial Participation as the dependent variable, the model was statistically significant at F(3, 345) = 99.160, p < 0.001, and the three predictors collectively explained 46.3 percent of the variance in participation. Entrepreneurial Support emerged as the strongest predictor, with a standardised coefficient of 0.419, indicating that greater financial, infrastructural, training, guidance, and mentorship support was associated with higher entrepreneurial participation. Entrepreneurial Constraints had a negative and statistically significant relationship with participation, with a standardised coefficient of −0.342, meaning that respondents reporting greater constraints tended to report lower participation. Business Environment and Regulatory Climate was positively associated with participation, with a standardised coefficient of 0.299. Notably, the low descriptive means for support and regulatory climate are not contradictory to these positive regression coefficients; they simply indicate that while support and favourable conditions matter for participation, respondents perceive the current levels as inadequate.

Entrepreneurial Participation itself recorded a composite mean of 2.00, indicating relatively low levels of engagement. Participation in women’s business activities arranged by the municipality, having more than two employees, and supplying goods and services within and beyond the municipality all fell within the disagreement range. Business diversification through operating more than one line of business also recorded a relatively low mean of 2.19. However, respondents were comparatively more optimistic about the future, with the expectation of having more branches within five years recording the highest mean at 3.28, falling within the neutral category. This suggests that some women entrepreneurs retain aspirations for expansion despite currently limited levels of participation and business reach.

The findings carry significant implications for policymakers and support interventions. From a Resource-Based Theory perspective, efforts should prioritise enhancing access to financial, human, and social capital through mentorship programmes, skills development workshops, and partnerships with educational institutions. From an Institutional Theory perspective, there is a pressing need to reform regulatory frameworks, simplify tax policies and employment legislation, strengthen support systems, and challenge entrenched gender norms. The researchers argue that without addressing both dimensions simultaneously, interventions are unlikely to produce meaningful or sustainable improvements in female entrepreneurial outcomes. The study also acknowledges limitations, including its cross-sectional design, focus on a single municipality, and reliance on self-reported data, and calls for longitudinal and comparative research to assess the long-term effectiveness of support programmes for women entrepreneurs across different regions.

Subject of Research: Women's entrepreneurship in South Africa

Article Title: Women’s voice in the South African entrepreneurial ecosystem: implications for support interventions

Article References: Mkhwanazi, S. J., & Utete, R. (2026). Women’s voice in the South African entrepreneurial ecosystem: implications for support interventions. Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, 8, Article 1977451. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsc.2026.1977451

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.3389/frsc.2026.1977451

Keywords: women entrepreneurship, South Africa, Durban, eThekwini Municipality, SMEs, Resource-Based Theory, Institutional Theory, entrepreneurial support, entrepreneurial constraints, regulatory climate, post-pandemic, Frontiers in Sustainable Cities