The research was grounded in the digital inclusion framework proposed by Tate and Warschauer, which conceptualizes equitable technology integration as a multidimensional process involving access, digital skills, and meaningful use. By applying this framework, the study moved beyond a narrow focus on physical infrastructure to examine how functional capabilities and institutional contexts shape the educational value of digital tools. The analysis employed a quantitative, cross-sectional design using data from the TIMSS 2023 cycle, coordinated by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. This approach allowed for a detailed comparison of how different indicators of digital engagement relate to academic performance across two distinct phases of the South African schooling system, with learners nested within schools in the statistical models.

The data revealed that while personal device ownership was associated with lower scores, specific self-reported digital skills showed positive associations with mathematics achievement. In both Grade 5 and Grade 9, learners who reported a greater ability to find information online and to write or edit digital text tended to have higher mathematics scores. These findings indicate that functional capabilities, particularly for information retrieval and text editing, are associated with better performance. However, the relationship was not uniform across all skills; self-reported ability to create graphs and tables was negatively associated with achievement in both grades. This suggests that perceived competence in specific technical tasks does not always align with demonstrated curriculum-relevant performance, highlighting the need for a multidimensional interpretation of digital skills.

At the contextual level, the study highlighted the role of school-mediated access and teacher preparedness in shaping mathematics achievement. Occasional school-mediated access to digital devices was positively associated with higher scores in both cohorts, with the association being particularly strong in Grade 5. Similarly, the availability of digital devices in the classroom during mathematics instruction was associated with better performance. These results underscore the importance of structured institutional environments where technology is integrated into the pedagogical process. The findings suggest that specific arrangements for accessing digital devices in schools and classrooms are associated with mathematics achievement, although the observational design does not establish how effectively these devices were integrated into teaching.

Teacher readiness emerged as another critical factor in the analysis. The study found that teacher-reported lack of knowledge about using digital devices to improve student learning was negatively associated with mathematics achievement in both Grade 5 and Grade 9. This association was stronger in the younger cohort, indicating a more pronounced link in Grade 5. The results align with broader literature emphasizing that hardware provision alone is insufficient without corresponding investments in teacher training and professional development. Effective digital transformation in education requires not only the presence of technology but also the pedagogical capacity to integrate it meaningfully into instruction, as reflected in the specific technology-related classroom activities captured in the TIMSS teacher questionnaire.

The variance decomposition analysis provided further insight into the distribution of achievement differences between and within schools. The final models indicated that contextual variables accounted for a larger proportion of between-school variation in Grade 5 than in Grade 9. Specifically, the residual Level 2 variance was reduced by 75.9% in the Grade 5 model compared to 55.4% in the Grade 9 model. These descriptive patterns suggest that the institutional and classroom conditions captured by the model play a more substantial role in explaining achievement differences among younger students. However, the researchers cautioned that these cross-grade differences should not be interpreted as formal evidence of developmental mechanisms, as the two cohorts were analyzed separately and developmental maturity was not directly measured.

Socioeconomic status was also examined as a control variable in the models. The Home Educational Resources scale, which reflects learner-level socioeconomic status, was significantly and positively associated with mathematics achievement in Grade 5, but not in Grade 9. Conversely, School Socioeconomic Composition, a Level 2 indicator, was significantly associated with achievement in Grade 9 but not in Grade 5. This shift in the relative importance of home versus school resources across grade levels highlights the complex interplay between individual and institutional factors in educational outcomes. The findings suggest that while home resources may be more influential for younger learners, the broader socioeconomic context of the school becomes a more significant predictor for older students, although these variables were included primarily as controls.

The study acknowledges several limitations, including the cross-sectional design, which precludes causal inference, and the reliance on self-reported measures for digital skills. The authors note that perceived competence may not always correspond with demonstrated ability, and that the data do not capture the pedagogical depth or quality of technology use in classrooms. The meaningful use dimension was approximated indirectly through available TIMSS indicators rather than measured as a distinct validated construct. Despite these constraints, the research provides valuable evidence for policymakers and educators seeking to design equitable digital inclusion strategies, advocating for a capability-oriented approach that balances infrastructure investment with targeted teacher training.

In conclusion, the analysis of TIMSS 2023 data reveals that digital inclusion in South African mathematics education is a multifaceted issue that cannot be addressed through device distribution alone. The negative association between personal device ownership and achievement, coupled with the positive associations with specific digital skills and structured school access, underscores the need for a nuanced understanding of how technology interacts with educational contexts. As South Africa continues to pursue digital transformation, these insights suggest that future efforts should focus on fostering functional digital capabilities and strengthening the institutional conditions that support meaningful technology use in the classroom. This approach may help bridge persistent educational inequalities and ensure that digital tools serve as effective aids to learning for all students, consistent with the multidimensional view of digital inclusion.

Subject of Research: Associations between digital inclusion indicators and mathematics achievement in South African Grade 5 and 9 learners

Article Title: Exploring digital inclusion and mathematics achievement in South Africa with reference to TIMSS 2023

Article References: Ngoveni, M. A. (2026). Exploring digital inclusion and mathematics achievement in South Africa with reference to TIMSS 2023. Discover Education, 5(1), Article 1224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-026-02289-w

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44217-026-02289-w

Keywords: TIMSS 2023, Mathematics Achievement, Digital Inclusion, South Africa, Education Policy, Multilevel Modeling, Teacher Preparedness, Digital Skills, Socioeconomic Status, Educational Technology, Exploring, digital