The research, published in Cleaner Engineering and Technology by a team from the Tecnológico Nacional de México led by Bethsabet Jaramillo-Sierra, tackles a contamination problem that spans the globe. Acetaminophen has been detected in wastewater and surface waters on nearly every continent, at concentrations ranging from tens of nanograms per liter in France and Canada to hundreds of micrograms per liter in Colombia and northern Mexico. Although each individual measurement may seem small, the compound’s sheer consumption volume, its availability over the counter, and its resistance to biological degradation mean it accumulates persistently in rivers, drinking water sources, and even treated effluents.

The concern is not merely the presence of the parent molecule. Acetaminophen is poorly biodegradable, so it passes through conventional treatment largely intact, and it has been linked in laboratory studies to genetic damage, oxidative lipid degradation, and liver injury in living organisms. Worse still, during some tertiary treatment steps the compound can transform into by-products that are more dangerous than the original drug, including 1,4-benzoquinone and N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine, a hepatotoxic metabolite capable of causing hepatic failure and necrosis. Any credible remediation strategy must therefore do more than hide the molecule; it must destroy it or convert it into harmless end products.

The Mexican team turned to advanced oxidation processes, or AOPs, a family of water treatment methods that operate at ambient temperature and pressure and rely on the generation of highly reactive chemical species, most notably the hydroxyl radical. This radical carries a higher oxidation potential than chlorine and reacts non-selectively with a broad range of organic pollutants, which makes it attractive for treating trace contaminants of many kinds. AOPs also avoid sludge production, do not require adsorbents that need controlled disposal, and can be driven by easily handled reagents such as ozone and hydrogen peroxide, with ozone generated on site from atmospheric air to reduce storage and transport costs.

The experimental apparatus was deliberately simple: a cylindrical stainless-steel reactor with an 11-watt ultraviolet lamp emitting at 200 to 280 nanometers, housed in a quartz tube, coupled to a 12-watt ozone generator and a recirculating reservoir. Synthetic solutions of acetaminophen at 100 milligrams per liter were treated for 60 minutes in 500-milliliter batches, with hydrogen peroxide added at doses of 5, 10, and 15 milligrams per liter. Degradation was tracked by ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry, chemical oxygen demand was measured colorimetrically, and oxidation by-products were identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry following solid-phase extraction.

The results revealed a clear hierarchy of effectiveness. Ultraviolet light alone managed only about 11 percent degradation in an hour, primarily by photolyzing water molecules into hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen atoms, a process that accelerates around the 254-nanometer wavelength. Hydrogen peroxide alone reached roughly 27 percent at the highest dose. Ozone alone, attacking through both direct molecular oxidation and indirect decomposition into hydroxyl radicals, achieved 73 percent. Pairing ozone with ultraviolet light pushed the figure to 84 percent, because photolysis of dissolved ozone generates additional atomic oxygen, hydroxyl radicals, and even hydrogen peroxide in solution, creating multiple parallel destruction pathways.

The real breakthrough came when all three agents were applied simultaneously. The ozone-hydrogen peroxide combination, known as peroxone, promotes hydroxyl radical formation through the mutual reaction of the two oxidants, and adding ultraviolet irradiation on top of this triggered photolysis of both peroxide and dissolved ozone. Under these conditions, with an initial hydrogen peroxide concentration of just 5 milligrams per liter, the team achieved 99 percent acetaminophen degradation in 60 minutes. Notably, the study found an optimal peroxide dose: higher concentrations of 10 and 15 milligrams per liter actually performed worse over time, because excess peroxide and the hydroperoxyl radical it forms act as scavengers, consuming the very hydroxyl radicals that destroy the pollutant.

Chemical analysis confirmed that the combined treatment went beyond mere transformation. Carbon dioxide production rose steadily across the treatment combinations, peaking at 37 milligrams per liter for the triple system, evidence of genuine mineralization rather than simple conversion to other organics. Chemical oxygen demand removal reached 74 percent in the same configuration, compared with just 9 percent for ultraviolet light alone. Color measurements told a parallel story: untreated solutions stayed clear, ultraviolet treatment alone produced a pale carmine tint at 150 platinum-cobalt units as aromatic ring breakdown products accumulated, while the triple system yielded only a faint yellow at 5 units, indicating that even the colored intermediates were being further oxidized. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry identified by-products dominated by carboxylic acid, ester, and alcohol structures arising from aromatic ring cleavage and recombination, and crucially, the team did not detect hydroquinone or 1,4-benzoquinone, suggesting these hazardous intermediates were themselves degraded during the process.

Energetically, the triple treatment also proved competitive. The researchers calculated the electrical energy per order, a standard metric describing the kilowatt-hours needed to reduce pollutant concentration by one order of magnitude per cubic meter, and obtained 23.00 kilowatt-hours per cubic meter for the peroxide-ozone-UV system, well below the 537 kilowatt-hours per cubic meter required for ultraviolet treatment alone and below several values reported in comparable literature. The estimated operating cost of the best configuration came to 5.04 US dollars per cubic meter, with ultraviolet irradiation dominating the energy bill, ozone generation second, and hydrogen peroxide contributing least. The degradation kinetics followed a pseudo first-order model, with rate constants rising as processes were combined, consistent with the theory that degradation depends primarily on pollutant concentration while oxidant doses remain effectively constant.

Finally, the team assessed whether the treated water was actually safer, using the germination of lettuce seeds as a biological toxicity screen. Untreated and lightly treated samples showed moderate toxicity, with ozone alone inhibiting germination by 40 percent, a sign that oxidative intermediates can be more harmful than the parent drug. But the full triple treatment reduced inhibition to 15 percent, close to the control level, demonstrating that synergistic oxidation both destroys the pollutant and neutralizes its residual toxic footprint. Taken together, the findings position the combined peroxide-ozone-UV process as an operationally simple, reproducible, and relatively inexpensive route to eliminating one of the world’s most ubiquitous pharmaceutical pollutants, though the authors note that complete mineralization would likely require longer treatment times or more intensified oxidative conditions to drive the remaining low-complexity organic by-products all the way to inorganic carbon.

Subject of Research: Degradation of the pharmaceutical pollutant acetaminophen in water using combined advanced oxidation processes involving ozone, hydrogen peroxide, and ultraviolet radiation.

Article Title: Acetaminophen degradation process applying a combination of oxidizing agents and ultraviolet radiation

Article References: Jaramillo-Sierra, B., Mercado-Cabrera, A., Ibañez-Olvera, M., Peña-Eguíluz, R., Rodríguez-Méndez, B. G., & López-Callejas, R. (2026). Acetaminophen degradation process applying a combination of oxidizing agents and ultraviolet radiation. Cleaner Engineering and Technology, 34, Article 101301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2026.101301

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1016/j.clet.2026.101301

Keywords: acetaminophen, paracetamol, advanced oxidation processes, ozone, hydrogen peroxide, ultraviolet radiation, hydroxyl radicals, wastewater treatment, pharmaceutical pollution, water purification, mineralization, chemical oxygen demand