PANoptosis is a relatively recent concept in cell biology. Rather than treating inflammatory cell death as a set of separate pathways, researchers have come to view pyroptosis, apoptosis, and necroptosis as deeply intertwined, with shared molecular machinery forming a large complex known as the PANoptosome. That complex, assembled from proteins such as RIP1, RIP3, and NLRP3 in response to damage signals, executes a death program that is simultaneously inflammatory, self-dismantling, and membrane-rupturing. PANoptosis has been documented in heart injury, retinal ischemia, glaucoma, and lung damage, but whether it occurs in neurons after a mild knock to the brain had remained an open question. The new study provides some of the clearest evidence yet that it does.

Using a controlled cortical impact model in mice calibrated to produce mild injury, the researchers first tracked Snapin expression over time. Protein levels in the injured cortex climbed significantly within twelve hours and stayed elevated for roughly three days, with a similar but slightly delayed rise in the hippocampus. Immunofluorescence staining one day after injury revealed that the upregulated Snapin was concentrated almost exclusively in neurons, co-localizing with the neuronal marker NeuN far more than with markers of microglia or astrocytes. This neuronal specificity mattered, because it pointed the finger at the cells whose loss underlies the cognitive and motor decline that follows concussion.

To test whether Snapin was merely a bystander or an active participant, the team used adeno-associated viruses to deliver a short hairpin RNA that silenced Snapin specifically in the injured brain region. The results were striking. Twenty-four hours after injury, when cell death peaks, mice with reduced Snapin showed significantly lower levels of the full PANoptosis toolkit: pyroptosis markers including NLRP3, caspase-1, gasdermin D, ASC, and interleukin-1 beta; apoptosis markers including caspase-3 and Bax; and necroptosis markers RIP1 and RIP3. Double-label imaging confirmed that fewer neurons carried caspase-3, gasdermin D, or RIP1 signals. Silencing Snapin also reduced degenerating neurons on Nissl and Fluoro-Jade B stains and preserved brain tissue volume at twenty-eight days.

The behavioral consequences were equally compelling. Injured mice with Snapin knockdown recovered grip strength faster on the wire-grip test, moved less anxiously in the open field, performed better on novel object recognition, and navigated the Morris water maze with shorter escape latencies and more platform crossings than injured controls. Reduced activation of astrocytes and microglia around the injury site suggested that dampening the cell death program also quieted the neuroinflammatory aftermath. Interestingly, the story was not simply that less Snapin is always better: in uninjured sham animals, Snapin silencing actually increased some degeneration, indicating that the protein performs essential housekeeping duties under healthy conditions and only turns destructive in the altered chemistry of the injured brain.

That chemistry centers on hydrogen sulfide, the pungent gas better known for its rotten-egg smell but increasingly recognized as a versatile signaling molecule in the nervous system. Hydrogen sulfide is synthesized by three enzymes, including cystathionine beta-synthase, or CBS, and it modifies proteins through a post-translational reaction called S-sulfhydration, which attaches sulfur to cysteine residues and can alter protein activity. The Soochow team found that after mild brain injury, Snapin physically interacts with CBS, an interaction confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation and supported by molecular docking simulations that predicted a stable complex with a favorable binding score. Yet despite elevated CBS expression, tissue hydrogen sulfide levels fell after injury, and silencing Snapin partially restored them. Blocking hydrogen sulfide synthesis with aminooxyacetic acid erased the protective effect of Snapin knockdown, placing the gas firmly downstream of Snapin in the pathway.

The downstream target turned out to be cathepsin D, or CTSD, the dominant aspartate protease of the brain’s lysosomes, accounting for roughly ninety percent of acidic protease activity there. CTSD is born as an inactive precursor, pro-CTSD, and must mature through the endosome-lysosome pathway into its active form. After mild injury, the researchers found that pro-CTSD levels were unchanged but mature CTSD surged, and mature CTSD escaping from leaky lysosomes is well positioned to trigger caspase-3 activation and apoptotic death. Crucially, the team’s modified biotin-switch assays showed that S-sulfhydration of pro-CTSD dropped after injury, and that hydrogen sulfide treatment restored this modification while simultaneously reducing mature CTSD accumulation. In other words, sulfur modification of the precursor acts as a brake on CTSD maturation, and the injured brain loses that brake.

To confirm that the mature protease was the executioner, the researchers administered pepstatin A, a CTSD inhibitor, or sodium hydrosulfide, a hydrogen sulfide donor, immediately after injury. Both interventions reduced mature CTSD, suppressed the entire PANoptosis marker panel, cut the number of degenerating neurons, and improved long-term outcomes. Treated mice showed better motor scores on wire-grip and beam-balance tests, less anxiety-like behavior, improved recognition and spatial memory, greater preserved hemisphere volume at twenty-eight days, and fewer activated microglia and astrocytes. The convergence of a protease inhibitor and a gas donor on the same outcome strengthens the causal chain from Snapin through hydrogen sulfide and CTSD maturation to neuronal death.

The emerging picture is one of a compensatory response gone wrong. The authors propose that Snapin rises after injury as part of an attempt to shore up synaptic and lysosomal function, consistent with its known roles in endosome-lysosome trafficking and autophagosome-lysosome fusion. But in the redox-impaired environment of the injured brain, where sulfur metabolism falters, that same elevation disrupts hydrogen sulfide homeostasis, weakens S-sulfhydration of pro-CTSD, accelerates CTSD maturation, and ignites PANoptosis. Snapin thus undergoes a functional shift from homeostatic guardian to accomplice in neuronal loss, a context-dependent duality that may explain why broadly suppressing such proteins is risky while timed, injury-specific intervention appears beneficial.

The clinical implications are tantalizing but preliminary. Concussion affects millions of people each year, and the persistent translational gap in traumatic brain injury research reflects both the heterogeneity of clinical phenotypes and incomplete understanding of secondary cell death. A defined axis, Snapin to hydrogen sulfide to CTSD to PANoptosis, offers multiple points of potential intervention, from modulating Snapin-CBS interaction to boosting sulfur modification of lysosomal enzymes. Notably, prior clinical work has found CTSD gene upregulation in salivary extracellular vesicles of patients with mild traumatic brain injury, hinting at biomarker potential. The mouse findings, behavioral windows limited to the acute and subacute phases, and the dual role of Snapin in healthy neurons all caution against premature translation. Still, the study adds a striking entry to the growing list of gasotransmitter-controlled switches in the brain, and it suggests that the aftermath of a mild head injury may one day be tamed by chemistry as simple as sulfur.

Subject of Research: The role of Snapin, hydrogen sulfide signaling, and cathepsin D maturation in neuronal PANoptosis after mild traumatic brain injury

Article Title: Snapin mediates neuronal PANoptosis after mild traumatic brain injury via H 2 S-dependent S-sulfhydration of CTSD

Article References: Chen, X., Huang, X., An, Y., Gao, C., Gao, Y., Shan, H., Tao, L., Chen, X., & Zhang, M. (2026). Snapin mediates neuronal PANoptosis after mild traumatic brain injury via H2S-dependent S-sulfhydration of CTSD. Journal of Advanced Research, 88, 911-927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2026.01.039

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2026.01.039

Keywords: mild traumatic brain injury, PANoptosis, Snapin, hydrogen sulfide, cathepsin D, S-sulfhydration, CBS, lysosomes, neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation, programmed cell death, concussion