The research, led by Tsegaye Alemu Tola of Ethiopia’s Federal TVET Institute together with Yanqiu Che and Jing Mi of Tianjin University of Technology and Education in China, surveyed 428 TVET teachers drawn from 47 public institutions spanning ten Ethiopian regions and city administrations. The respondents taught across 16 different occupational majors, from engineering trades to service-sector disciplines, and ranged from diploma holders to master’s graduates, with teaching experience stretching from a single year to more than two decades. Of the 450 questionnaires distributed, 428 valid responses were retained, a response rate exceeding 95 percent, with roughly 81 percent of participants male.

At the heart of the study lies the European Union’s Digital Competence of Educators framework, known as DigCompEdu, which organizes teacher digital competence into 22 competency items across six domains: professional engagement, digital resources, teaching and learning, assessment, empowering learners, and facilitating learners’ digital competence. Before drawing any conclusions about skill levels, the team first had to prove that this European-born instrument could withstand statistical scrutiny in an Ethiopian vocational context — a validation step the authors say had never been performed before for the country’s TVET sector.

That validation hinged on confirmatory factor analysis, a structural equation modeling technique that tests whether observed survey responses genuinely map onto the theoretical constructs they are meant to measure. The results were emphatic. The six-factor model produced a chi-square of 425.89 with 194 degrees of freedom, a chi-square-to-degrees-of-freedom ratio of 2.2, and fit indices that comfortably exceed accepted benchmarks: a Comparative Fit Index of 0.966, a Tucker-Lewis Index of 0.959, a Root Mean Square Error of Approximation of 0.053, and a Standardized Root Mean Square Residual of just 0.036. Standardized factor loadings for all 22 items ranged from 0.709 to 0.898, well above the 0.50 threshold, while the overall instrument achieved a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.95, signaling excellent internal consistency.

The team also ran a battery of discriminant validity checks to ensure the six domains were statistically distinct rather than blurred reflections of a single underlying trait. Cross-loading analysis, the Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio — which stayed below the 0.90 cutoff — and the Fornell-Larcker criterion all confirmed that each construct captured unique variance. Average variance extracted values ranged from 0.59 to 0.79, above the recommended 0.50, and variance inflation factors between 1.7 and 3.51 ruled out problematic multicollinearity among items. In short, the DigCompEdu framework, originally designed for European classrooms, proved psychometrically robust for measuring the digital competence of vocational teachers in a developing-country context.

With the instrument validated, the descriptive picture that emerged was sobering. Ethiopian TVET teachers rated their digital competence as low to moderate across all six domains, with mean scores ranging from 2.72 to 3.32 on a five-point Likert scale where 3 marks the neutral midpoint. The weakest areas were professional engagement, assessment, and empowering learners’ digital competence, all of which fell below the midpoint, suggesting teachers feel least confident using digital technologies for their own professional development, for evaluating student work, and for fostering learner-centered digital strategies. Relative strengths appeared in teaching and learning, digital resources, and facilitating learners’ digital competence, though even these hovered near neutral rather than signaling genuine proficiency.

The inferential analysis then produced the study’s most striking result. Mann-Whitney U tests comparing male and female teachers, and Kruskal-Wallis H tests comparing teachers across age bands, experience levels, and educational qualifications, found no statistically significant differences in any of the six competence domains. This contradicts a substantial body of international literature in which younger teachers and, in many studies, male teachers outperform their peers on digital competence measures. The authors interpret the finding as evidence that in the Ethiopian TVET context, personal demographics simply do not drive digital capability — a conclusion with significant policy implications, because it means interventions need not be tailored to demographic subgroups.

What did move the needle were two institutional variables. Teachers with prior digital technology training scored significantly higher across the overall spectrum of digital competence, confirming that structured ICT training programs translate directly into measurable capability. Meanwhile, the availability of internet access at vocational schools produced significant differences in professional engagement, assessment, empowering learners, and facilitating learners’ domains, and the presence of digital teaching tools significantly lifted competence across all dimensions overall. Notably, the digital resources and teaching and learning domains did not differ significantly by internet availability, hinting that basic resource-handling skills may develop even in connectivity-poor environments while higher-order competencies do not.

The findings land at a pivotal moment for Ethiopian vocational education. The country’s 2023 Education and Training Policy and its 2025 TVET Strategy explicitly prioritize creating a digitally competent workforce, yet the study notes that graduates have consistently struggled to meet labor market expectations, and that the system is constrained by outdated equipment, shortages of qualified educators, and insufficient funding. As Industry 4.0 technologies — artificial intelligence, digital twins, simulation software, and the Internet of Things — reshape the workplaces TVET graduates are meant to enter, the gap between policy ambition and classroom reality threatens to widen unless the teaching workforce itself is upskilled.

The authors close with a layered set of recommendations. At the policy level, they call for a national digital competency framework for TVET with modular certification, alongside regional digital innovation centers that could pool simulation technologies as scalable substitutes for costly physical equipment. Institutions are urged to invest in equitable infrastructure — reliable laptops, high-speed internet, and industry-relevant tools — while adopting low-bandwidth and offline-capable technologies suited to resource-constrained settings. Teachers themselves are encouraged to pursue continuous, collaborative professional learning through communities of practice and peer mentoring. The study’s limitations, including its cross-sectional design, self-assessment instrument, and non-probabilistic sampling, mean the findings capture a snapshot rather than a trajectory. But the core message is unambiguous: closing Ethiopia’s vocational digital divide is not about who the teachers are, but about what their institutions give them.

Subject of Research: Digital competence of technical and vocational education and training teachers in Ethiopia and its sociodemographic and institutional determinants

Article Title: Evaluation of TVET teachers’ digital competence in Ethiopia and Its sociodemographic determinants

Article References: Tola, T. A., Che, Y., & Mi, J. (2026). Evaluation of TVET teachers’ digital competence in Ethiopia and Its sociodemographic determinants. Discover Education, 5(1), Article 1016. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-026-02107-3

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44217-026-02107-3

Keywords: digital competence, TVET, Ethiopia, DigCompEdu, vocational education, teacher training, ICT infrastructure, confirmatory factor analysis, professional development, digital divide, educational technology, sociodemographic factors