Maize grain protein generally lacks adequate amounts of lysine, tryptophan and methionine, which the researchers identified as a limitation affecting the crop’s nutritional quality. Prior work had focused more extensively on lysine and tryptophan, leaving less information about variability in methionine and its association with the other two amino acids. The present analysis therefore examined methionine content across the inbred-line collection and evaluated whether increases in one amino acid were accompanied by increases in another.

Five inbred lines—MIL-7-341-1-1, E6-36-1-C2, MIL-7-315-7, MIL-7-87-1 and E6-21-1—had methionine concentrations above 0.25%. These observations identify the genotypes as material with comparatively high measured methionine content within this study. The analysis also characterized each inbred line across the three nutritional traits, combining assessment of variation with identification of lines that showed enhanced individual amino-acid profiles.

The strongest measured relationship was between lysine and tryptophan. Their correlation coefficient was 0.77, indicating a strong, highly significant positive association across the 250 lines. In practical terms, lines with relatively high lysine concentrations tended also to have relatively high tryptophan concentrations in the evaluated collection.

The result indicates that the two traits moved together in this set of inbred lines, although the correlation alone does not identify the biological mechanism responsible for that pattern. Methionine behaved differently. Its correlation coefficients were 0.03 with lysine and 0.03 with tryptophan, representing weak, non-significant associations.

Methionine concentration therefore showed little linear relationship with either amino acid in the studied material. The results distinguish methionine variation from the more closely aligned variation observed for lysine and tryptophan, while remaining limited to the measured grain concentrations and genetic backgrounds represented by the 250 Indian maize inbred lines.

Subject of Research: Genetic variation and correlations among three amino acids in 250 Indian maize inbred lines

Article Title: Genetic Variability and Interrelationships of Methionine, Lysine, and Tryptophan in Indian Maize Inbred Lines

Article References: Sharma, J., Das, A. K., Chaudhary, D. P., Singh, A., Kaur, Y., Kumar, S., Devi, V., Sharma, P., Rakshit, S., Jat, H. S., & Kumar, R. (2026). Genetic Variability and Interrelationships of Methionine, Lysine, and Tryptophan in Indian Maize Inbred Lines. Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44489-026-00053-w

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44489-026-00053-w

Keywords: Indian maize, maize inbred lines, methionine, lysine, tryptophan, grain amino acids, genetic variation, correlation analysis, nutritional quality, Genetic, Variability, Interrelationships

The researchers drew on two of the most extensive food databases available in Europe: Euromonitor’s Passport, which tracks commercial market data, and EuroFIR’s FoodEXplorer, which aggregates compositional food data from national food composition tables across the continent. By combining these sources, the team was able to chart market volumes from 2009 to 2024 and, in parallel, analyse the macronutrient profiles of the products on sale. Nutritional quality was scored using two complementary front-of-pack labelling schemes, the Nutri-Score and the Multiple Traffic Light system, and the researchers additionally assessed which products would be legally eligible to carry nutrition claims under EU Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. Differences between plant-based analogues and their animal-derived counterparts were tested statistically using the Mann–Whitney U test, a non-parametric method suited to the skewed distributions typical of food composition data.

The headline market finding is unambiguous: plant-based analogues are no longer a niche. Between 2009 and 2024, the market volume of dairy analogues more than tripled, while the market for meat and seafood analogues grew approximately sevenfold. That trajectory reflects a convergence of forces, including rising consumer interest in flexitarian diets, environmental concerns about livestock production, and sustained investment by food manufacturers in improving the taste and texture of products designed to mimic burgers, sausages, milk, and yoghurt. Yet the study’s authors caution that rapid growth has not been accompanied by consistent product quality, and that the term plant-based covers an enormously heterogeneous set of foods.

That heterogeneity is most striking in the macronutrient analysis. Protein content varied widely within every category examined, but the variability was particularly pronounced among analogues to curded dairy products, the plant-based equivalents of cheese. Many of these products provided little to no protein at all, a finding that undercuts a common consumer assumption that a plant-based cheese alternative is nutritionally comparable to the dairy product it replaces. Dairy cheese is a significant protein source in European diets, and the analysis suggests that consumers relying on analogues to fill that role may, depending on the product chosen, receive almost nothing in return. The researchers attribute this variability to formulation: some products are built on protein-rich bases such as pea, soy, or almond concentrates, while others rely heavily on starches, oils, and flavourings.

The Nutri-Score results, which grade foods from A, the healthiest, to E, the least healthy, based on levels of energy, sugars, saturated fat, sodium, protein, fibre, and fruit or vegetable content, revealed consistent but category-dependent patterns. Approximately half of the meat and seafood analogues analysed achieved an A or B rating, placing them among the better-scoring packaged foods. Dairy drink analogues, by contrast, displayed much greater variability, with scores spread across the scale depending on added sugars and fat content. The most troubling result concerned analogues to curded dairy products: every single one scored D or E, the two worst grades. The researchers traced these poor scores to three drivers: high total fat, high saturated fat, and elevated salt levels, a combination that mirrors some of the less healthy characteristics of the cheeses these products imitate.

The Multiple Traffic Light system, which colour-codes fat, saturated fat, sugars, and salt per portion, reinforced the same picture. It also highlighted salt as a recurring concern across several analogue categories. While plant-based products are often perceived as inherently healthier, the processing required to make legumes, grains, and vegetable oils resemble animal products can involve substantial amounts of added sodium, thickeners, and flavour enhancers. The study’s findings suggest that the health halo surrounding plant-based labelling is not always earned by the nutritional composition of the food inside the package.

There were genuine positives, however. More than 60 percent of the meat and seafood analogues qualified for legally defined claims of high protein and low saturated fat, indicating that a majority of products in this fast-growing category do deliver on at least two of the nutritional attributes consumers most often seek. Across the board, the comparison with animal products showed a consistent pattern: plant-based analogues contained more dietary fibre and less total and saturated fat than the animal foods they replace. Fibre is essentially absent from meat, dairy, and seafood, so any product built from plants carries an automatic advantage on that front, and the lower saturated fat content aligns with long-standing dietary guidance linking saturated fat intake to cardiovascular disease risk.

The less favourable side of the ledger concerned protein and the more variable nutrients. Overall, the analogues contained less protein than their animal counterparts, and their sugar and salt levels were inconsistent, sometimes higher and sometimes lower depending on the product and category. This matters because protein, salt, and added sugars are precisely the nutrients around which public health advice in Europe is most actively framed. A consumer who replaces a portion of meat with a low-protein, high-salt analogue may be making a trade that is beneficial for fibre and saturated fat but detrimental elsewhere in their diet. The authors emphasise that the nutritional contribution of any analogue depends heavily on product formulation and on the dietary context in which it is consumed, rather than on the plant-based label itself.

For the researchers, the policy implications are clear. The plant-based analogue market is expanding and is likely to continue doing so as Europe pursues more sustainable food systems, but the sector’s contribution to healthy diets is not guaranteed by growth alone. The study concludes that reformulation could substantially enhance the role these products play, particularly by raising protein content in underperforming categories such as cheese analogues and by reducing salt, saturated fat, and total fat where front-of-pack scores are poor. Because the analysis shows that quality is formulation-dependent rather than intrinsic to the category, targeted reformulation is technically feasible, and the eligibility of many products for nutrition claims suggests manufacturers already have the tools to differentiate better products on shelf.

The study also fills an important evidence gap. Although plant-based analogues have attracted considerable attention in national surveys and single-market studies, EU-wide data on their market evolution and nutritional quality had remained limited. By systematically combining commercial market intelligence with compositional data and validated front-of-pack scoring systems, the Joint Research Centre team has produced the kind of baseline that regulators, public health authorities, and manufacturers can use to monitor the sector as it matures. As the authors note, plant-based analogues are rising in market share, but whether they become a reliable pillar of healthy and sustainable diets will depend on the choices made now about what goes into them.

Subject of Research: Market trends and nutritional quality of plant-based packaged food analogues to animal products in the European Union

Article Title: Plant-based packaged foods as analogues to animal products: market trends and nutritional quality analysis

Article References: Kokkorou, M., Hoffzimmer, A., Dias, J., Grammatikaki, E., Wollgast, J., & Maragkoudakis, P. (2026). Plant-based packaged foods as analogues to animal products: market trends and nutritional quality analysis. BMC Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-026-05207-x

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1186/s12916-026-05207-x

Keywords: plant-based analogues, packaged foods, nutritional quality, Nutri-Score, EU market, market trends, dairy analogues, meat analogues, protein content, sustainable diets, food reformulation, BMC Medicine

The trial was conducted during the Rabi season of 2022 to 2023 on the research farm of the Division of Vegetable Science at IARI, New Delhi, in a semi-arid subtropical climate with sandy clay loam soil classified as a Cambisol. Because the test accessions were too numerous to replicate individually, the team used an augmented block design: the four check varieties were replicated six times across six randomised blocks, while the remaining 90 accessions were distributed among the blocks, each block holding 15 test entries alongside the four checks. Plots were spaced at 30 centimetres between rows and 15 centimetres between plants, and standard fertilisation with farmyard manure, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium was applied. Data were collected from five plants per plot and analysed with the augmentedRCBD package in R, which adjusts for block effects in unreplicated designs.

The laboratory work behind the study was extensive. Total phenolic content was measured with the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent method, expressed as gallic acid equivalents per 100 grams. Antioxidant capacity was assessed in two complementary ways: the DPPH radical scavenging assay, which tracks the bleaching of a violet free radical at 517 nanometres, and the ferric reducing antioxidant power, or FRAP, assay, which measures the ability of antioxidants to convert ferric to ferrous iron under acidic conditions, read at 593 nanometres. Total sugars were quantified with the anthrone reagent method, proteins by the DUMAS combustion technique, in which samples are burned at roughly 1000 degrees Celsius and nitrogen is measured by thermal conductivity, and minerals including calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc by atomic absorption spectroscopy after microwave digestion.

The results showed that genetic variation for nutritional quality in this germplasm is far larger than many earlier studies had suggested. Phenol content ranged more than six-fold, from 29.18 to 185.58 milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per 100 grams, with the line IPFD-16-13 recording the highest value and GP 1804 the lowest, against a mean of 70.74. Sugar content spanned 1.80 to 9.80 percent, with the check variety Pusa Prabal the sweetest at 9.80 percent and GP 1104 the least sweet. Protein, measured on a fresh weight basis, varied from 3.54 to 9.09 percent, with GP 1102 topping the entire panel at 9.09 percent and 2021/PMVAR-7 the lowest. Analysis of variance confirmed that treatment effects were highly significant for every trait evaluated, while block effects were non-significant, indicating that the augmented design effectively controlled field heterogeneity.

The mineral data were equally encouraging for biofortification. Calcium ranged from 8.04 to 33.49 milligrams per 100 grams and magnesium from 24.41 to 60.59, with GP 1102 again the leader for both. Iron varied from 0.76 to 3.05 milligrams per 100 grams, with 2021/PMVAR-6 accumulating the most, and zinc ranged from 0.52 to 3.12, with GP 1801 far exceeding all check cultivars. Iron and zinc deficiencies remain among the most widespread forms of hidden hunger worldwide, so identifying pea lines that naturally concentrate these micronutrients offers a low-cost route to nutrient-enriched cultivars. GP 1102 outperformed the best check for protein, calcium and magnesium simultaneously, making it a particularly valuable donor for overall nutritional density.

Antioxidant capacity told its own story. JP625 recorded the highest values in both the DPPH assay, at 0.83 percent Trolox equivalents, and the FRAP assay, at 0.99 micromoles of Trolox equivalents per gram fresh weight, while IPFD-16-13 and JP625 both showed substantially higher phenolic content than the best check. Correlation analysis revealed why phenolics matter so much here: phenol content was strongly and positively associated with both DPPH, at a coefficient of 0.633, and FRAP, at 0.709, indicating that phenolic compounds are the primary drivers of antioxidant activity in pea seeds. The two antioxidant assays also correlated strongly with each other, at 0.594, reinforcing the reliability of the measurements.

The correlation matrix also exposed trade-offs and opportunities that breeders will need to navigate. Protein content was positively associated with calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc and FRAP, but negatively correlated with moisture, pod yield per plant, DPPH and sugar. Sugar content, by contrast, correlated positively with pod yield, iron and moisture, suggesting that selection for sweeter, higher-yielding peas may run counter to selection for protein density. The strong positive relationship between protein and magnesium, at 0.808, is biologically plausible because magnesium is an essential cofactor in nitrogen assimilation and protein biosynthesis, meaning genotypes that accumulate more magnesium may simply be better equipped to synthesise protein. Moisture content showed strong negative correlations with most nutritional constituents, consistent with a dilution effect in which drier, more nutrient-dense seeds concentrate proteins and minerals on a fresh weight basis.

Multivariate statistics sharpened the picture further. Principal component analysis showed that the first two components together explained more than 50 percent of total variation, with the first five components accounting for 33.73, 18.38, 14.75, 12.74 and 6.61 percent respectively. The first principal component emerged as a nutritional-density axis, with positive loadings for protein, magnesium, phenolics and both antioxidant assays, effectively separating nutrient-dense genotypes from watery, lower-quality ones. Hierarchical clustering using Ward’s method and Euclidean distance grouped the 94 genotypes into six distinct clusters. The largest inter-cluster distance, 113.83, separated clusters 6 and 1, while cluster 4 contained the highest cluster means for protein, calcium and magnesium and included GP 1102, and cluster 6, which included JP625, recorded the highest phenol content and antioxidant activity. Crosses such as GP 1102 crossed with JP625 or IPFD-16-13 could combine superior protein and mineral content with enhanced antioxidant capacity, while GP 1102 crossed with GP 1801 or 2021/PMVAR-6 might improve protein and micronutrients together.

The authors are careful to frame these results as a starting point rather than a finished recipe. The study was conducted over a single growing season, and biochemical traits in peas are known to be environmentally responsive, so the genotype rankings reported here reflect performance under the specific conditions of the 2022 to 2023 Delhi winter rather than genetically fixed values. Multi-location and multi-year trials will be needed to confirm the stability of lines such as GP 1102 and JP625 before they enter commercial breeding programmes, and future work should profile the specific phenolic subclasses and individual sugars in the elite lines using chromatographic techniques such as HPLC-DAD or LC-MS. Still, the message is clear: within existing vegetable pea germplasm lies enough natural variation to breed peas that are sweeter, richer in protein and minerals, and packed with health-promoting antioxidants, all through conventional selection and crossing rather than genetic modification.

Subject of Research: Nutritional and biochemical evaluation of garden pea germplasm for quality breeding

Article Title: Nutritional and biochemical analysis in vegetable pea germplasm for quality breeding

Article References: Roy, N., Sharma, B. B., Choudhary, H., Sharma, V. K., Bhardwaj, R., Saini, N., Kumar, R., & Singh, S. (2026). Nutritional and biochemical analysis in vegetable pea germplasm for quality breeding. Discover Plants, 3(1), Article 436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44372-026-00912-6

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44372-026-00912-6

Keywords: garden pea, Pisum sativum, germplasm, biofortification, antioxidant activity, phenolic compounds, protein content, genetic diversity, plant breeding, mineral nutrients, principal component analysis, nutritional quality

MicroRNAs, or miRNAs, are single-stranded RNA molecules typically 21 to 24 nucleotides in length. Although they do not encode proteins, they perform a crucial regulatory function by binding to messenger RNA targets and either cleaving them or blocking their translation. In doing so, they fine-tune the expression of transcription factors, hormone signaling components and transporter genes that govern virtually every aspect of plant life, from root architecture and flowering time to drought tolerance and grain filling. A single miRNA can regulate multiple genes within the same pathway, which makes these molecules extraordinarily powerful levers for crop improvement. Environmental conditions can reshape miRNA expression profiles, and in turn the plant’s stress responses, offering a dynamic regulatory layer that breeders have only begun to exploit.

The review, led by Kasanaboina Krishna of the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and colleagues, synthesizes evidence from across the major cereals and emerging millet studies to build a millet-focused regulatory framework. The authors distinguish between conserved grass-wide miRNA modules and millet-specific candidates, and they are candid about the state of the field: most millet miRNA research to date has been limited to computational prediction and expression profiling, while rigorous functional validation remains scarce. Degradome sequencing evidence, tissue-specific regulatory maps and field-relevant genotype-by-environment analyses are still largely missing, meaning that many of the most exciting candidates remain hypotheses rather than established tools.

Nevertheless, the evidence that does exist is compelling. In foxtail millet, miR394 has been shown to positively regulate drought resistance, with upregulation after treatment with methyl jasmonate, ethephon, salicylic acid and abscisic acid, and improved germination rates and root lengths in response. A member of the miR396 family, SimiR396d, targets the growth-regulating factor gene SiGRF1, and its overexpression enhances both root growth and drought tolerance, directly linking miRNA-mediated developmental regulation to stress adaptation. In pearl millet, one of the most drought-tolerant cereals known, researchers identified 61 novel miRNAs under high vapor pressure deficit, with families including miR167, miR172, miR396 and miR399 implicated in root physiology and abiotic stress responses. Sorghum studies have revealed 80 individual miRNAs responding to drought, heat and combined stress, including eight novel stress-responsive families.

Salinity tolerance offers another striking example. In finger millet, the Eco-miR169–EcNF-YA13 regulatory module has been identified as a key determinant of dehydration and salinity tolerance; the transcription factor EcNF-YA13 supports stress tolerance but is suppressed by Eco-miR169, suggesting that modulating this miRNA could relieve the repression and enhance tolerance. Earlier work in the same species identified 48 conserved and 35 novel salinity-responsive miRNAs, with several families upregulated more than tenfold in tolerant genotypes. In pearl millet, small RNA sequencing revealed 95 salinity-responsive miRNAs targeting 448 genes, many involved in auxin responses, hinting that miRNA-mediated hormone regulation underpins the crop’s remarkable salt resilience.

Beyond stress tolerance, miRNAs appear central to the nutritional traits that make millets so valuable as nutri-cereals. Finger millet is prized for its calcium content, pearl millet for iron and zinc, kodo millet for dietary fiber and phenolics, and fonio for sulfur-containing amino acids. Yet the direct links between specific miRNAs and grain micronutrient accumulation remain under-investigated. One notable exception comes from pearl millet, where pgl-miR159 was identified as a candidate associated with iron metabolism during a broader search for grain iron and zinc genes. In rice, high-iron transgenic lines showed downregulation of root-specific miRNAs that in turn upregulated key transporters such as OsYSL15, OsFRO2 and OsIRT1, boosting iron and zinc uptake. The review argues that identifying orthologous transporter–miRNA modules in millets could provide a mechanistic framework for biofortification, provided the interactions are experimentally validated.

The translational toolkit for moving from candidate miRNAs to improved cultivars is now substantial. The authors propose a roadmap combining tissue- and stage-resolved miRNA atlases with target validation through degradome sequencing, RNA Ligase-Mediated Rapid Amplification of cDNA Ends and reporter assays. Functional intervention platforms include short tandem target mimics, which sequester endogenous miRNAs to relieve repression of beneficial target genes; artificial miRNAs, which deliver highly specific gene knockdowns with minimal off-target effects; and CRISPR/Cas-mediated editing of miRNA loci, promoters or target recognition sites. Proof-of-concept studies in other cereals show the power of these approaches: editing the miR396 binding sites in rice OsGRF4 and OsGRF8 derepressed growth and boosted grain size, while CRISPR-induced mutations in the miR156 recognition element of wheat TaSPL13 improved grain number, size and architecture.

Integration with breeding pipelines is the critical next step. miRNA-derived molecular markers, first developed in Brassica and rice, capture regulatory variation rather than merely neutral structural differences, linking markers directly to traits such as stress tolerance and yield stability. In foxtail millet, researchers designed 66 primer pairs from conserved pre-miRNA sequences with high cross-genera transferability, underscoring their promise as functional genotyping tools. The review also highlights the potential of machine learning and digital miRNA twins, computational models trained on sequence features and expression data to predict stress-responsive miRNAs and simulate how edited or introgressed miRNA modules would perform across drought cycles, heatwaves and nutrient-poor soils before any field trial. Embedding miRNA target interactions into crop simulation platforms could dramatically shorten breeding cycles for climate-resilient varieties.

The regulatory and ecological dimensions are not ignored. India’s 2022 guidelines exempt site-directed nuclease 1 and 2 genome-edited plants from GMO-style environmental risk assessment once vector sequences are segregated, opening a practical pathway for non-transgenic miRNA edits. At the same time, the authors note that plant miRNAs can move within and between organisms, a consideration for environmental safety even in cisgenic edits. Benchmarks for nutritional outcomes already exist: Indian biofortified pearl millet targets of at least 42 milligrams of iron and 32 milligrams of zinc per kilogram of grain, achieved without sacrificing yield. Rapid screening systems built around the model grass Setaria viridis, including spike-dip transformation, protoplast assays and foxtail mosaic virus vectors for virus-induced gene silencing, could accelerate functional validation before the best constructs move into stable millet genotypes for multi-environment testing.

The broader message is one of urgency and opportunity. Millets already possess C4 photosynthesis, deep root systems, compact stature and strong antioxidant defenses that allow them to thrive where major cereals fail. Their inherent micronutrient richness makes them ideal testbeds for miRNA-guided climate-smart breeding. What is missing is the systematic functional validation that would transform descriptive miRNA catalogues into experimentally confirmed regulatory networks. If the roadmap laid out in this review is followed, building comprehensive miRNA atlases, mining landrace and wild-relative diversity for novel miRNA alleles, deploying CRISPR and target mimicry tools, and integrating validated miRNA-trait associations into genomic selection models, the humble millet could become a global model for genetic resilience, nutritional density and smart agriculture, delivering climate-proof, micronutrient-dense grain to the farmers and consumers who need it most.

Subject of Research: MicroRNA regulatory networks controlling climate resilience and nutritional traits in millet crops

Article Title: Harnessing microRNA regulatory networks for engineering climate resilience and nutritional enhancement in millets

Article References: Krishna, K., Habyarimana, E., Jamedar, H. R., VG, I. L., Chavan, S., Prasad, B. V. V., Mohan, Y. C., Edukondalu, B., & Ceasar, S. A. (2026). Harnessing microRNA regulatory networks for engineering climate resilience and nutritional enhancement in millets. Stress Biology, 6(1), Article 57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44154-026-00332-2

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s44154-026-00332-2

Keywords: microRNAs, millets, climate resilience, drought tolerance, salinity stress, biofortification, CRISPR genome editing, foxtail millet, pearl millet, finger millet, nutritional quality, molecular breeding