The antimicrobial peptide LL-37, derived from human cathelicidin, represents a fascinating candidate for combating these formidable foes. Known for its broad-spectrum activity against various microbes, LL-37 also possesses anti-inflammatory properties that may be advantageous in therapeutic applications. However, the precise mechanisms through which LL-37 operates against such resistant strains have yet to be fully elucidated, making this study particularly crucial.

In their work, Eladl and collaborators employed detailed biophysical characterization techniques to analyze the behavior of LL-37 peptides in the presence of agar and artificial membranes. Through these experiments, they aimed to determine how the antimicrobial peptide interacts with and disrupts bacterial membranes, a key factor in its effectiveness against drug-resistant strains. Such insights can pave the way for designing more effective antimicrobials or improving existing therapies.

Moreover, the researchers conducted transcriptomic analyses to study the genetic responses of multidrug-resistant E. coli when exposed to LL-37. This part of the study unveiled the significant shifts in gene expression that occur when these bacteria encounter the antimicrobial peptide. Understanding the molecular pathways activated in response to LL-37 is vital for developing strategies to enhance its efficacy and mitigate any potential resistance development.

The challenge posed by ESKAPE pathogens, characterized by their ability to evade the immune response and resist multiple antibiotics, necessitates innovative research approaches. Pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecium, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter species form a formidable group in hospital settings, often leading to serious infections that are difficult to treat. LL-37’s activity against such pathogens raises hopes for new treatment avenues, especially given its unique mechanism of action.

One of the primary appeals of LL-37 is its capacity to induce permeabilization of bacterial membranes without relying solely on classical antibiotic mechanisms. Traditional antibiotics typically target specific bacterial processes such as cell wall synthesis or protein production, which can lead to the development of resistance. In contrast, LL-37 appears to disrupt the integrity of the cell membrane, making it a promising candidate to potentially sidestep the resistance pathways that bacteria have developed.

The implications of this research extend beyond understanding LL-37’s direct antimicrobial effects. The modulation of the host immune response by LL-37 presents an additional avenue for exploration. The peptide has been shown to exhibit immunomodulatory effects, potentially enhancing the body’s ability to combat infections while also reducing inflammation. These dual effects could be immensely beneficial in treating infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.

Furthermore, understanding how LL-37 affects gene expression in resistant E. coli may help identify new targets for antibiotic development. As the study reveals shifts in expression patterns, it could guide researchers towards alternative pathways that can be exploited either by developing new drugs or repurposing existing ones to work in conjunction with LL-37.

Future research inspired by Eladl’s findings could also explore how the stability of LL-37 in various biological environments affects its antimicrobial efficacy. Investigating how factors like pH, temperature, and the presence of serum proteins influence the peptide’s activity would provide crucial insights necessary for its clinical application. Ensuring the peptide remains active in the complex human body while effectively reaching its target is a key challenge in turning such promising laboratory results into real-world therapies.

In conclusion, Eladl’s pioneering work on LL-37-derived antimicrobial peptides unveils significant potential for addressing the growing threat of multidrug-resistant pathogens. By elucidating the biophysical interactions and transcriptomic responses of these novel therapeutic candidates, this study paves the way for exciting advancements in antimicrobial research. The battle against drug-resistant bacteria is ongoing, and studies like this bring renewed hope in the quest for innovative solutions.

As the scientific community continues to confront the rising problem of antimicrobial resistance, ongoing research will be essential to unlock the full potential of novel antimicrobial compounds like LL-37. By combining rigorous characterization with an understanding of the underlying biological mechanisms, future developments could revolutionize our approach to treating some of the most challenging infections known today.

Subject of Research: Antimicrobial peptide LL-37 against drug-resistant Escherichia coli and ESKAPE pathogens

Article Title: Biophysical and transcriptomic characterization of LL-37-derived antimicrobial peptide targeting multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli and ESKAPE pathogens.

Article References:

Eladl, O. Biophysical and transcriptomic characterization of LL-37-derived antimicrobial peptide targeting multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli and ESKAPE pathogens.
Sci Rep 15, 36126 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-22890-7

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-22890-7

Keywords: Antimicrobial peptides, LL-37, multidrug resistance, E. coli, ESKAPE pathogens, biophysical characterization, transcriptomic analysis.

Enterococcus faecalis, a common yet troublesome bacterium, is responsible for a myriad of infections, particularly in hospital settings. Its escalating resistance to multiple antibiotic classes raises alarming concerns within the healthcare community. The emergence of such resistant strains leaves medical professionals with few viable treatment options, driving urgency to discover novel antimicrobial strategies. Researchers have explored various avenues, from plant-based antimicrobials to novel antibiotic formulations, but the focus on postbiotics showcases an innovative departure in therapeutic development.

The study centered on the supernatant derived from Akkermansia muciniphila, a bacterium that thrives within the human gut ecosystem. This microbe has gained prominence for its beneficial health properties, including enhancing gut permeability and modulating immune responses. Such characteristics have sparked curiosity among microbiologists and health professionals alike, emphasizing the potential role of A. muciniphila in not only gut health but also in systemic immunity and infection resistance.

Utilizing advanced techniques, the researchers isolated the supernatant from cultured Akkermansia muciniphila. Subsequently, they assessed its effects on various strains of Enterococcus faecalis. Through a series of meticulous experiments, they demonstrated that the supernatant exhibited remarkable antibacterial properties against resistant strains of this pathogen, suggesting a promising alternative to traditional antibiotics.

This mechanism of action is particularly fascinating. The researchers hypothesized that the metabolites and bioactive compounds present in the supernatant could disrupt bacterial cell membranes or interfere with critical metabolic pathways in the target bacteria. Further investigations will be essential to elucidate the precise nature of these interactions, but the initial findings indicate a compelling synergy between the postbiotics and the pathogenic bacteria.

Postbiotics, in contrast to probiotics, are the bioactive compounds produced during fermentation. They include a diverse array of molecules ranging from short-chain fatty acids to functional proteins, and their activity often extends beyond mere antimicrobial effects to include immune modulation and enhancement of gut barrier functions. This duel role might indeed provide a wider therapeutic window, mitigating the risks associated with antibiotic therapy such as dysbiosis and disturbance of the microbiome’s balance.

Given the limitations of conventional antibiotic treatments, particularly for Enterococcus faecalis, the implications of this research extend beyond mere academic interest. The data support a novel paradigm in how microbial interactions can be harnessed to develop effective treatments for infections that currently pose significant health challenges. The therapeutic applications of these findings could reach beyond just bacterial infections to impact broader areas including chronic inflammatory conditions or metabolic diseases where gut health plays a crucial role.

As experts in the field examine the translational potential of these findings, the move from laboratory bench to bedside will involve further rigorous clinical testing. Human trials will be necessary to determine the efficacy and safety of using Akkermansia muciniphila supernatant in treating infections. However, what remains apparent is that the results provide a strong foundation for advancing postbiotic research as a viable competitor in the race against antibiotic resistance.

Certainly, addressing the growing menace of antibiotic resistance requires a multifaceted strategy. This study is a shining example of how researchers can look towards the gut microbiome for novel solutions that align both with nature’s designs and technological advancements in biology. As more evidence mounts, the pathway forward will undoubtedly encompass a more integrative view of health, recognizing the complex interplay between host microbiota and pathogenic organisms.

Further discoveries and innovations are anticipated as researchers continue to explore not only Akkermansia muciniphila but other beneficial microbes that can yield similar therapeutic outcomes. Promising leads may well emerge from the burgeoning fields of synthetic biology and metagenomics, providing tools to engineer beneficial strains capable of delivering sophisticated therapeutic modalities. The future of infection treatment could one day reside within an optimized blend of probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics, creating a new frontier in personalized medicine.

The importance of this research cannot be overstated. In a world where antibiotic overuse and resistance is the new norm, finding alternatives offers hope for patients and practitioners alike. The findings surrounding Akkermansia muciniphila represent a significant stride toward innovative healthcare solutions that respect and utilize the complexity of our microbiomes. As the scientific community rallies around this opportunity, the collective ambition will surely bolster efforts towards overcoming one of modern medicine’s most pressing challenges in public health.

As we stand on the brink of this new dawn in microbial therapeutics, the exciting prospects of Akkermansia muciniphila pave the way for an era where alternatives to antibiotics could eventually lead to safer, more effective treatments. In addition to its postbiotic properties, this bacterium serves as a symbol of hope, encapsulating the belief that the natural world can provide us with answers to our most daunting medical dilemmas. The future of infection control may lie in the hands of the microbiome, and the time is ripe to explore its untapped potential.

Subject of Research: The postbiotic activity of Akkermansia muciniphila supernatant against antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus faecalis.

Article Title: Postbiotic activity of Akkermansia muciniphila supernatant against antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus faecalis.

Article References:

Başaran, S.N. Postbiotic activity of Akkermansia muciniphila supernatant against antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus faecalis.
Int Microbiol (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10123-025-00733-9

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10123-025-00733-9

Keywords: Akkermansia muciniphila, postbiotics, Enterococcus faecalis, antibiotic resistance, microbiome, therapeutic applications.

Endolysins, naturally occurring enzymes produced by bacteriophages, target and degrade the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls. This unique mechanism of action positions them as promising candidates for the development of new antibacterial therapies. However, the effectiveness of endolysins has been limited against Gram-negative bacteria due to their robust outer membrane, which often prevents the enzymes from reaching their target. The researchers sought to delve deeper into how the molecular characteristics of these endolysins can be enhanced to overcome such barriers.

Through advanced structural analysis techniques, the research team investigated the influence of the C-terminal helix’s surface charge on the activity of endolysins. The findings revealed that a positively charged surface is critical for effective binding to the negatively charged bacterial membranes. This charge interaction is essential for the permeation of endolysins into the bacterial cell wall, allowing these enzymes to exert their lethal effects. The study not only provides a molecular framework for understanding endolysin function but also sheds light on how modifications to the surface charge could enhance their antibacterial potency.

Examining various endolysin variants, the researchers applied mutagenesis techniques to alter the amino acid composition of the C-terminal helix. The results were striking: endolysins with optimized surface charge profiles exhibited significantly increased antibacterial activity against a range of Gram-negative bacteria, including notorious pathogens such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. These findings suggest that strategic manipulation of endolysin characteristics can pave the way for the development of tailored antibacterial agents capable of circumventing the defenses of Gram-negative pathogens.

Moreover, the study discusses the broader implications of these findings in the context of rising antibiotic resistance. As traditional antibiotics lose efficacy, alternative antimicrobial strategies become crucial. The positive surface charge enhancement can be seen as a vital step in the quest to combat multidrug-resistant bacterial infections. By creating engineered endolysins with enhanced activity, researchers hope to provide a viable solution to one of the most pressing challenges in contemporary medicine.

Additionally, the study emphasizes the need for further research into the stability and delivery mechanisms of modified endolysins. While laboratory results are promising, the translation of these findings into clinical practice necessitates thorough investigations to ensure the safety and effectiveness of these novel agents in human therapy. Understanding how these modified endolysins interact with human tissues and the host immune response is paramount.

Furthermore, the article reflects on the potential for therapeutic applications beyond the realm of antibacterial treatments. Endolysins with engineered surface properties could have implications in food safety, as they may be used to eradicate pathogenic bacteria in food processing environments. The versatility of these biomolecules extends to potential use in veterinary medicine and agricultural practices, where they could help manage bacterial infections in livestock and crops.

The researchers also highlight the collaborative nature of this study, which brought together expertise in microbiology, biochemistry, and structural biology. Such interdisciplinary approaches are increasingly recognized as essential for tackling complex biological problems, illustrating the importance of fostering collaborations among scientists from diverse fields. Sharing knowledge and tools between disciplines accelerates innovation and drives progress toward solutions for global health challenges.

As the scientific community continues to navigate the landscape of antibiotic resistance, studies like this provide hope for the future. The work by Kim et al. exemplifies a paradigm shift in how we think about bacterial infections and the potential for harnessing naturally occurring biomolecules to fight them. The intricate relationship between molecular architecture and biological function revealed in this study sets the stage for a new era of antimicrobial therapy, one that leverages nature’s ingenuity.

The implications of this research extend not just to the development of new drugs but also to the broader field of synthetic biology. By understanding the principles that govern the interaction between biomolecules and their targets, researchers can innovate new strategies to design and engineer novel biomolecules tailored for specific therapeutic purposes. This could lead to unprecedented advancements in how we approach complex diseases and infections, reshaping the future of medicine.

In conclusion, the examination of the surface charge of the C-terminal helix in endolysins opens up exciting avenues for research and application in the fight against antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The study by Kim et al. is a testament to the potential of using molecular insights to develop effective, targeted therapies that can overcome the challenges posed by Gram-negative pathogens. As the global healthcare landscape continues to evolve, innovations rooted in rigorous scientific research will be crucial in safeguarding public health against emerging threats.

In a world that increasingly relies on antibiotics, the contributions of studies like this are vital in ensuring that effective alternatives for combating bacterial infections remain within reach. The ongoing pursuit of knowledge in molecular biology, microbiology, and engineering will play an essential role in shaping the future of antimicrobial therapies, ultimately contributing to better health outcomes on a global scale.

Subject of Research: The impact of surface charge on the antibacterial activity of endolysins against Gram-negative bacteria.

Article Title: Surface charge of the C-terminal helix is crucial for antibacterial activity of endolysin against Gram-negative bacteria.

Article References:

Kim, J., Son, S.M., Ahn, E. et al. Surface charge of the C-terminal helix is crucial for antibacterial activity of endolysin against Gram-negative bacteria. J Biomed Sci 32, 38 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12929-025-01133-x

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1186/s12929-025-01133-x

Keywords: endolysin, antibacterial activity, Gram-negative bacteria, surface charge, antibiotic resistance, engineering, biomolecules, therapeutic applications.

Cannabidiol is one of the many active compounds found in the cannabis plant. Unlike tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), CBD does not exert psychoactive effects, making it a more suitable candidate for therapeutic applications. Its non-psychoactive nature, coupled with its anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, has garnered interest in various medical fields, including oncology, neurology, and infectious diseases. The exploration of CBD in the context of fighting antibiotic-resistant infections highlights the importance of looking beyond conventional drug therapies.

Research indicates that Acinetobacter baumannii can develop resistance to multiple antibiotics through various mechanisms, such as enzymatic degradation and alteration of drug targets. This adaptability poses significant challenges in clinical settings, where standard treatments often fail. A study conducted by Yosboonruang and colleagues examines the efficacies of CBD against extensively drug-resistant strains of A. baumannii, potentially offering a new line of defense for patients facing severe infections. The findings from this research are pivotal, as they may contribute to a significant shift in how we approach treatment for these resistant infections.

The study found that CBD exhibits significant antimicrobial properties, disrupting the integrity of bacterial cell membranes. This disruption not only hinders the growth and reproduction of A. baumannii but also enhances the bactericidal action of other antibiotics. By using a combination of CBD and conventional antimicrobial agents, researchers observed a potentiating effect that could lead to increased efficacy in treating drug-resistant infections. Such findings urge the medical community to consider the potential of CBD as an adjunct therapy in infectious disease treatment protocols.

Moreover, the study highlights the role of CBD in modulating the immune response. Cannabidiol has demonstrated the ability to reduce inflammation and enhance immune function, which is critical when dealing with infections. The anti-inflammatory properties of CBD may help alleviate the severe symptoms often associated with A. baumannii infections, allowing for a more comprehensive approach to patient care. By integrating CBD into treatment regimens, healthcare providers may improve patient outcomes, especially in severe cases where traditional antibiotics fail.

Understanding the mechanisms through which CBD acts on bacterial cells is a focal point of this research. The compound appears to interact directly with bacterial membranes, disrupting their structural integrity. Furthermore, CBD’s influence on biofilm formation—clusters of bacteria that adhere to surfaces and are imbued with a protective layer—suggests it may help reduce the chronicity of infections associated with bacteria like A. baumannii. Addressing biofilm-related infections is crucial as they are notoriously difficult to treat and often lead to persistent infections in patients.

As scientists delve deeper into the pharmacodynamics of CBD, its potential applications within the healthcare landscape continue to expand. The promising results from laboratory studies necessitate further clinical trials to ascertain the safety, efficacy, and optimal dosing regimens for humans. These trials are essential in establishing controlled protocols for introducing CBD as a therapeutic option in treating resistant infections.

In an era where antibiotic resistance is reaching critical levels, the exploration of alternative therapies such as CBD represents a beacon of hope. If the ongoing research substantiates the initial findings, CBD could pave the way for novel outpatient solutions, reducing the reliance on potent antibiotics that often result in severe side effects or further resistance. This shift could fundamentally change the paradigm of infection management in hospitals and beyond.

Importantly, the intersection of cannabis research and pharmacology underscores the need for policy reform surrounding the medical use of cannabinoids. As evidence mounts regarding the therapeutic benefits of CBD, it is crucial for regulatory bodies to consider frameworks that facilitate research and incorporate these findings into clinical practice. Comprehensive guidelines and regulations could ensure safe and effective use of cannabinoids in treating severe infections.

Continuous interdisciplinary collaboration will be required to navigate the complexities of introducing CBD into mainstream medicine. The collaboration between microbiologists, pharmacologists, and clinicians will be vital to unraveling the comprehensive profile of CBD as a therapeutic agent against multidrug-resistant bacteria. Additionally, patient education and awareness are critical components that will enable informed decisions about the use of CBD in public health contexts.

In conclusion, the potential of cannabidiol to tackle extensively drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii represents a groundbreaking development in the fight against antibiotic resistance. The findings from Yosboonruang et al. serve as a call to action for researchers, clinicians, and policymakers alike. As the understanding of CBD’s mechanisms of action expands, the path toward integrating cannabinoid therapies into conventional treatment frameworks becomes clearer. The journey to harness the power of CBD in combatting one of modern medicine’s most pressing challenges is just beginning, but the prospects are undeniably promising.

In light of the urgency created by rising antibiotic resistance, the ongoing pursuit of alternative treatment modalities is paramount. Cannabidiol has the potential to complement existing therapies while opening the door to innovative treatment strategies. As we move forward, it is imperative to remain committed to exploring this promising avenue and ensuring that the benefits of cannabinoids like CBD become accessible to those in need.

Subject of Research: Cannabidiol (CBD) as a potential treatment for extensively drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii infections.

Article Title: Potential of Cannabidiol (CBD) to overcome extensively drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii.

Article References:

Yosboonruang, A., Kiddee, A., Siriphap, A. et al. Potential of Cannabidiol (CBD) to overcome extensively drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii.
BMC Complement Med Ther 25, 308 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-025-05056-w

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1186/s12906-025-05056-w

Keywords: Cannabidiol, Acinetobacter baumannii, antibiotic resistance, antimicrobial properties, cannabinoid therapy.

Bacterial flagella are among the most sophisticated biological motors known, enabling microorganisms to swim, navigate harsh environments, and colonize diverse habitats. Composed of thousands of protein subunits, the flagellum extends from the bacterial cell surface into the extracellular milieu, functioning as a rotary propeller powered by a basal motor embedded in the cell membrane. Despite decades of study, the precise structural organization of the extracellular portion and the exact molecular choreography by which the filament elongates remained elusive until now.

The researchers employed cutting-edge cryo-electron microscopy combined with advanced computational modeling to capture the entire extracellular flagellum at near-atomic resolution. This comprehensive visualization revealed a finely tuned helical arrangement of flagellin proteins, each adopting subtly different conformations according to its position along the filament. The study depended on integrating data from multiple bacterial species, allowing the team to infer conserved structural features critical for function and assembly.

Central to the investigation is the revelation of the mechanism of flagellin incorporation. Flagellin monomers are synthesized inside the cell and transported through the narrow central channel within the growing flagellum, a process akin to threading a needle from the interior outwards. The new structural data revealed an intricate gating system at the filament base that ensures only correctly folded flagellin subunits are incorporated, preventing malformed proteins from disrupting filament integrity. This molecular gate likely functions through conformational changes triggered by the flagellin subunits themselves, reflecting an elegant feedback mechanism that synchronizes assembly and stability.

Moreover, the filament’s extracellular environment was found to influence flagellin polymerization. The flagellin subunits undergo a series of conformational adjustments once outside the cell, transitioning from flexible monomers into the crystalline lattice that defines the filament’s stiffness and helical pitch. This transition is critical, enabling the flagellum to withstand the mechanical stresses generated during high-speed rotation without compromising its structural integrity. The discovery of these conformational checkpoints opens exciting possibilities for synthetic biology, where engineered flagellins might be designed to self-assemble into customizable filaments for nanoscale applications.

The study also addressed the enigmatic role of accessory proteins interfacing with the flagellum’s external surface. These proteins were observed to act as molecular chaperones, stabilizing the nascent filament and protecting it from enzymatic degradation or environmental damage. Their presence underscores the complex orchestration behind flagellum biogenesis, which extends far beyond the simplistic notion of a linear polymerization process. The findings challenge long-standing assumptions about extracellular protein assembly, highlighting a coordinated network of interactions that maintain flagellar function under diverse conditions.

Intriguingly, the completed extracellular flagellum is not a static entity. The research sheds light on its dynamic nature, revealing that filament subunits can be exchanged and repaired in situ, allowing bacteria to rapidly adapt their motility machinery in response to environmental stimuli. This remodeling capacity implies a hitherto unappreciated level of structural plasticity, which confers resilience against damage incurred during motility or host immune defenses. Such plasticity could be a universal feature of extracellular protein complexes, inviting further investigation into other microbial appendages.

The implications of these discoveries extend beyond basic microbiology. Understanding the precise molecular mechanics governing flagellin incorporation offers new avenues for targeting bacterial motility in medical and industrial settings. By disrupting key steps in filament assembly, novel antimicrobial compounds might incapacitate motility-dependent virulence factors, reducing infection severity without relying on traditional bactericidal approaches that promote resistance. Additionally, engineered flagellar systems could serve as inspiration for designing synthetic motile devices or responsive biomaterials.

This research also contributes fundamental insights into the evolution of protein export and assembly systems in bacteria. The flagellum is evolutionarily related to the type III secretion system, which injects virulence proteins into host cells. The elucidation of a gating mechanism for extracellular protein assembly suggests common principles underlying diverse bacterial secretion and motility machineries, enlightening our understanding of microbial adaptation and pathogenesis. Comparative analyses with these related systems could reveal novel targets for therapeutic intervention.

Technically, the success of this study hinged on technical breakthroughs in cryo-EM data acquisition and image processing, which overcame previous limitations posed by the flagellum’s length and flexibility. The team developed innovative sample preparation protocols to isolate intact extracellular flagella while preserving native conformations. In combination with machine learning algorithms capable of sorting heterogeneous conformational states, these tools allowed the construction of highly accurate three-dimensional reconstructions sparking a leap forward in structural microbiology.

Given the flagellum’s role as a model for self-assembling protein nanomachines, these findings will likely inspire a flurry of bioengineering efforts. Synthetic peptides mimicking flagellin or its assembly intermediates could be harnessed to build tailor-made nanostructures, potentially useful in drug delivery, biosensing, or materials science. Moreover, the concept of a molecular gate controlling filament assembly represents a fascinating paradigm for regulating complex macromolecular architectures, inviting efforts to emulate such mechanisms in artificial systems.

In conclusion, the comprehensive structural elucidation of the complete extracellular bacterial flagellum and the underlying mechanism of flagellin incorporation represent a monumental advance in microbiology. The integration of state-of-the-art structural biology with functional insights illuminates a process critical for bacterial motility and survival, with vast implications for biotechnology and medicine. As the scientific community digests these transformative insights, the bacterial flagellum continues to stand out as a profound natural example of molecular ingenuity and evolution’s craftsmanship.

Subject of Research: Structure and assembly mechanism of the bacterial flagellum, specifically the extracellular filament and flagellin incorporation process.

Article Title: The structure of the complete extracellular bacterial flagellum reveals the mechanism of flagellin incorporation.

Article References:
Einenkel, R., Qin, K., Schmidt, J. et al. The structure of the complete extracellular bacterial flagellum reveals the mechanism of flagellin incorporation. Nat Microbiol (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-025-02037-0

Image Credits: AI Generated