Bronchopulmonary dysplasia, or BPD, is a chronic lung disease defined clinically by the continued need for respiratory support or supplemental oxygen at 36 weeks of postmenstrual age. It affects a substantial fraction of very preterm survivors and carries lifelong consequences, including increased risks of asthma-like symptoms, rehospitalization, impaired growth, and neurodevelopmental difficulties. The disorder arises from an intricate interplay of prematurity itself, inflammation, mechanical ventilation, oxygen toxicity, infection, and disturbed fluid homeostasis. Because the preterm lung must transition from a fluid-filled fetal state to an air-filled neonatal one within minutes to days, the way water moves into and out of the body during that transition has long been suspected to matter. Excess extracellular water can flood the pulmonary interstitium, worsen compliance, prolong the need for ventilation, and thereby amplify lung injury. This biological logic underpins the standard practice of restricting fluid intake and watching for a postnatal weight loss of roughly five to fifteen percent in the first week as a sign that the infant is clearing fluid appropriately.

The new study set out to characterize the longitudinal trajectories of fluid output, fluid balance, and related indicators across the first seven days of life, and then to test how those trajectories relate to moderate-to-severe BPD, classified according to the 2018 NICHD criteria. The investigators assembled a single-center retrospective cohort of very preterm infants who survived to 36 weeks postmenstrual age, and they applied generalized linear mixed models, a statistical framework well suited to repeated daily measurements nested within individual patients. This approach allowed them to compare day-by-day curves of fluid intake, output, balance, intake-to-output ratio, and weight loss between infants who later developed severe lung disease and those who did not, while adjusting for confounding factors. Their primary exposure was the cumulative fluid output over postnatal days three through seven, a window chosen because the earliest days are dominated by physiological transitions and measurement noise, whereas days three to seven better reflect sustained fluid handling.

Among the 211 infants included, 77, or 36.5 percent, developed moderate-to-severe BPD, a rate consistent with the substantial burden of disease in this gestational age range. When the daily trajectories were compared, one signal stood out: fluid balance over the first week behaved differently in the two groups, with a statistically significant BPD-by-time interaction for daily balance. Daily output, intake, intake-to-output ratio, and percentage weight loss did not differ significantly day by day between the groups. Yet when the researchers turned to cumulative measures across days three to seven, the pattern became sharper and, in one respect, inverted expectations. Every 10 milliliter per kilogram increase in cumulative fluid output over that five-day span was independently associated with higher odds of moderate-to-severe BPD, with an adjusted odds ratio of 1.073 and a 95 percent confidence interval of 1.031 to 1.115.

The crucial methodological move in the study was to separate output from intake. In observational neonatal data, output and intake are tightly coupled, because clinicians often adjust prescribed fluids in response to what the infant is losing, and because balance is by definition the arithmetic difference between the two. A naive analysis of net balance alone can therefore conflate the effects of giving too much fluid with the effects of losing fluid. The authors addressed this by constructing a joint model containing both cumulative output and cumulative intake over days three to seven. In that model, output retained a robust independent association with BPD, while cumulative intake was not statistically significant, with an adjusted odds ratio of 0.961 and a confidence interval of 0.924 to 0.999 that just crossed the null. A reference model using cumulative balance alone showed a reciprocal protective-sounding trend, with an adjusted odds ratio of 0.942, meaning a more positive balance appeared associated with lower odds of severe disease, a finding that is the mirror image of the output result and underscores how strongly the choice of exposure metric shapes conclusions.

That inversion is what makes the study provocative. Conventional neonatal teaching emphasizes cumulative net balance as the key target: a positive balance, meaning more fluid retained than excreted, is traditionally viewed as a risk factor for BPD because it implies pulmonary edema. The new data instead suggest that infants who went on to develop severe lung disease were, if anything, those with higher fluid losses in the first week, even after accounting for how much fluid they received. Several biological interpretations are possible, and the authors are careful to frame their findings as hypothesis generating rather than practice changing. High output could be a marker rather than a cause: infants who are sicker from the start, exposed to more inflammation or receiving nephrotoxic or diuretic medications, may both lose more fluid and be more likely to develop BPD for reasons unrelated to water handling. Alternatively, excessive fluid losses could reflect immature renal concentrating ability, and the resulting dehydration, electrolyte disturbance, and reduced circulating volume might impair perfusion and recovery of the developing lung.

There is also a plausible measurement story. Insensible water losses through the skin and respiratory tract of extremely preterm infants are enormous and difficult to quantify precisely, particularly under radiant warmers or phototherapy, and recorded output in retrospective chart data may miss stool losses or capture errors in weighing diapers. The daily trajectories analysis supports this caution: daily balance, a composite that integrates unmeasured losses implicitly, did show a significant group-by-time difference, while directly recorded daily output did not. Cumulative indices over days three to seven may smooth random error and reveal signal that single-day comparisons miss, but they also amplify any systematic bias in how fluids are charted. The single-center design, while ensuring consistent local practice, limits generalizability to centers with different fluid protocols, humidification strategies, or ventilation practices, and the retrospective nature means confounding by indication can never be fully excluded, even with statistical adjustment.

Statistically, the adjusted odds ratio of roughly 1.07 per 10 milliliters per kilogram is modest in magnitude but clinically meaningful when applied to the large fluid volumes handled over five days: a cumulative output difference of 100 milliliters per kilogram would translate into nearly a doubling of the odds in this model. Still, the confidence interval for intake came tantalizingly close to significance, and the reciprocal balance result suggests that the underlying associations are entangled in ways that only prospective, protocolized data collection can resolve. The study was retrospectively registered in the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry on 10 January 2025, and it was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Shanghai Children’s Medical Center with the consent requirement waived for the use of de-identified retrospective data. The authors declare no competing interests, and the work received no external funding.

For clinicians, the immediate takeaway is not to abandon careful fluid restriction but to pay closer attention to the output side of the ledger. Tracking cumulative output during days three to seven may offer an early window into which infants are at heightened risk of severe BPD, potentially prompting intensified respiratory care, closer renal monitoring, or earlier engagement of families in discussions about long-term follow-up. For researchers, the study identifies a clear agenda: prospective cohorts that simultaneously measure insensible losses, renal biomarkers, biompedance-based estimates of extracellular water, and echocardiographic markers such as hemodynamically significant patent ductus arteriosus, to determine whether high output is a cause, a consequence, or a correlated signature of lung vulnerability. Until such studies arrive, the authors’ message is measured but pointed. The neonatal fluid conversation has been dominated by how much fluid goes in; these findings insist that how much comes out deserves equal scientific scrutiny, and that the humble daily fluid chart, long treated as bookkeeping, may contain underexploited clues to one of prematurity’s most stubborn complications.

Subject of Research: Association of first-week fluid output trajectories with moderate-to-severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia in very preterm infants

Article Title: Association between fluid trajectories in the first postnatal week and moderate-to-severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia in very preterm infants: a retrospective cohort study

Article References: Wang, S., Chen, X., Bei, F., & Bu, J. (2026). Association between fluid trajectories in the first postnatal week and moderate-to-severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia in very preterm infants: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Pediatrics. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-026-07728-z

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1186/s12887-026-07728-z

Keywords: bronchopulmonary dysplasia, fluid output, fluid balance, very preterm infant, neonatology, retrospective cohort study, fluid management, prematurity, chronic lung disease, postnatal fluid trajectories, Association, between

Sugimoto, C., Brady, J.M., Hysinger, E. et al. Influence of a comprehensive BPD follow-up clinic on one-year outcomes of patients with bronchopulmonary dysplasia discharged on home supplemental oxygen therapy.
J Perinatol (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41372-026-02843-2

29 July 2026

At the heart of neonatal respiratory care, CPAP devices maintain airway pressure to keep neonatal lungs inflated, helping premature and critically ill infants to breathe with greater ease. However, not all CPAP devices are created equal. This study focuses specifically on the “imposed work of breathing,” a parameter reflecting the additional mechanical effort an infant must expend due to the resistance and mechanical load imposed by the device itself. A device that excessively increases WOB could inadvertently stress fragile lungs, undermining patient comfort and clinical efficacy.

The research dissects sixteen commercial neonatal CPAP devices, evaluating their performance through a rigorous comparative framework. These devices employ different methods to generate CPAP, including variable expiratory resistors, bubble CPAP systems, flow generators, and more. Each method creates airflow and maintains pressure through distinct mechanical principles, influencing the resulting imposed WOB on the infant.

A key technical insight emerges from the observation that devices relying on higher resistance elements to maintain pressure inherently elevate the infant’s respiratory effort. Conversely, systems that ensure smoother airflow delivery and reduce turbulent resistance correspondingly decrease the imposed WOB. This nuanced interplay between CPAP generation mechanisms and imposed load underscores the importance of engineering design optimization tailored to neonatal physiology.

One of the standout findings is the disparity in pressure stability achieved by different CPAP modalities. Bubble CPAP systems, for example, produce fluctuating pressures through underwater bubbling, which can serve to stimulate lung recruitment but may inadvertently introduce variable WOB demands. In contrast, flow generator-based CPAP devices tend to provide more consistent pressure, potentially lessening imposed WOB but requiring precise calibration to avoid excessive pressure.

The study utilized simulated neonatal breathing patterns paired with advanced measurement tools to quantify imposed WOB across devices. This methodological approach bolsters the reliability of findings by approximating clinical scenarios without risking patient welfare. Such bench testing, while not a substitute for clinical trials, provides critical comparative data to inform device selection and future design improvements.

Importantly, the investigation highlights that not all CPAP devices marketed for neonatal use adequately consider the imposed WOB in their design specifications. Devices with substantial imposed WOB can exacerbate respiratory fatigue, delay weaning from respiratory support, and even contribute to lung injury in fragile neonatal tissues. These findings call for heightened standards and evaluations in the regulatory approval process for neonatal respiratory devices.

Clinicians must therefore weigh the benefits of each CPAP system beyond nominal pressure delivery, incorporating evaluations of imposed respiratory effort into their decision-making processes. By understanding the mechanical nuances revealed in this study, healthcare providers can individualize respiratory support strategies that minimize iatrogenic complications and improve neonatal outcomes.

The study also opens avenues for future research focusing on improved CPAP mechanisms that combine low imposed WOB with effective lung recruitment and oxygenation. Innovations might include adaptive flow control systems, optimized nasal interface designs to reduce leak and resistance, and enhanced bubble chamber dynamics to stabilize pressure fluctuations.

Moreover, this research drives home the importance of multidisciplinary collaboration across biomedical engineering, neonatology, and respiratory therapy fields. The intricate balance between mechanical design and physiological impact demands integrated expertise to develop devices that are both technologically advanced and clinically empathetic.

This comprehensive analysis of neonatal CPAP devices thus represents a pivotal advancement in pediatric respiratory care technology. By illuminating the mechanics of imposed work of breathing, the study fosters an evidence-based approach to selecting and refining respiratory support tools, ultimately enhancing the quality of life for the most vulnerable patients.

As neonatal intensive care units worldwide continue to evolve, the translation of these findings into clinical protocols and device manufacturing standards will be key to improving survival rates and reducing chronic lung disease incidence among preterm infants.

In sum, this research invites both manufacturers and clinicians to reconsider how neonatal CPAP devices are designed and utilized. A commitment to reducing imposed WOB not only protects infants from additional respiratory burden but also paves the way for a new era of precision respiratory support centered on physiological harmony.

Future iterations of neonatal CPAP systems may well integrate real-time feedback mechanisms that monitor imposed WOB, adjusting parameters dynamically to suit the infant’s instantaneous respiratory capacity, thus embodying a truly patient-centric approach fostered by this foundational research.

Ultimately, the work by Sterzik and colleagues crystallizes a crucial dimension of neonatal respiratory support that has often been overlooked—how the mechanics of device design translate into measurable respiratory workload, with tangible implications for care standards and infant health trajectories worldwide.

Subject of Research: Imposed work of breathing in neonatal CPAP devices and its dependence on different CPAP generation mechanisms.

Article Title: Correction: Imposed work of breathing of 16 neonatal CPAP-devices using different mechanisms of CPAP generation.

Article References:
Sterzik, H., Arand, J., Schwarz, C.E. et al. Correction: Imposed work of breathing of 16 neonatal CPAP-devices using different mechanisms of CPAP generation. Pediatr Res (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-025-04640-7

Image Credits: AI Generated

The recent randomized crossover manikin trial spearheaded by Cavallin et al. delivers fresh insight into optimizing neonatal ventilation strategies. Utilizing an innovative neonatal manikin designed to mimic the delicate facial structure of newborns, the investigators compared positive pressure ventilation applied with two contrasting face mask inflation volumes: a partially inflated mask at 25 ml, and a fully inflated mask at 35 ml. Their meticulous approach examined not only the forces imparted on the manikin’s face but also measured cuff pressure dynamics and the degree of air leak during ventilation.

Understanding why applied force matters is essential. Excessive force exerted by a face mask could potentially injure a newborn’s fragile facial tissues, leading to bruising, edema, or even long-term sequelae. Conversely, insufficient force risks inadequate seal formation, resulting in ineffective ventilation and air leaks that compromise oxygen delivery. The delicate balance between these extremes is thus a critical component in clinical practice, yet quantitative data guiding optimal mask inflation have been scarce—until now.

The study’s methodology utilized a randomized crossover design, ensuring that each mask inflation condition was tested on the same manikin to reduce variability. By quantifying the force distribution across the face during positive pressure applications, the team could rigorously ascertain how inflation volume impacts the interaction between mask and neonatal skin analog. Additionally, real-time monitoring of cuff pressures and leakage allowed for comprehensive analysis of ventilation quality under each condition.

Results demonstrated a compelling difference: the fully inflated face mask, inflated to 35 ml, applied significantly higher forces on the manikin’s facial surface compared to the partially inflated 25 ml mask. This finding raises clinical concerns about tissue trauma risks with fully inflated masks, especially during prolonged ventilation sessions or when used repetitively. Remarkably, the partially inflated mask maintained an effective seal with reduced applied force, suggesting a safer yet equally efficacious alternative.

The measurement of cuff pressure further illuminated the physiological implications of mask inflation. Elevated cuff pressures associated with the fully inflated masks could potentially exacerbate pressure-related injuries, while the lowered pressures seen with partial inflation might offer a gentler ventilation approach without sacrificing performance. Notably, the study found that air leak—a common ventilation challenge—did not significantly increase with partial inflation, debunking fears of compromised efficacy.

The implications for neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) are profound. This nuanced understanding equips clinicians with evidence-based guidance to tailor ventilation approaches meticulously, potentially reducing iatrogenic injuries while safeguarding respiratory support effectiveness. With neonatal patients being among the most vulnerable in medicine, such optimization is not merely desirable but essential to improving morbidity and mortality outcomes.

This research also sparks further questions about the design and material properties of face masks used in neonatology. Could new, more pliable mask materials that conform better to facial anatomy be developed in conjunction with optimal inflation strategies? Might real-time pressure sensors be integrated into masks to provide clinicians immediate feedback, minimizing harmful forces instantaneously? These avenues open promising opportunities for innovation in neonatal care devices.

Moreover, the study sheds light on an often overlooked aspect of neonatal ventilation — operator technique. The pressure and force applied are inherently influenced by the practitioner’s hand positioning, strength, and experience. Training protocols incorporating these findings could revolutionize how clinicians are taught to administer positive pressure ventilation, emphasizing not only timing and technique but also mechanics of mask inflation and interface pressure.

One must also consider the broader systemic effects of such findings. Reducing mask-induced facial trauma can shorten the duration of ventilation support, minimize the need for sedation or analgesia, and alleviate parental stress by improving infant comfort. These indirect but vital benefits underscore how subtle technical refinements propagate ripple effects throughout patient care pathways.

The study’s randomized crossover design lends robustness to its conclusions, mitigating inter-subject variability often encountered in clinical trials. However, it is important to acknowledge limitations inherent in manikin-based studies. Neonatal skin and tissue responsiveness to mechanical forces can vary widely in vivo, necessitating follow-up clinical trials to validate these promising results in real patients. Nonetheless, this work lays a critical scientific foundation for such translational exploration.

In summary, the research led by Cavallin and colleagues represents a pivotal step forward in neonatal ventilation science. By quantifying the applied forces of partial versus full face mask inflation, they provide a vital framework guiding safer, more effective respiratory support. Their findings advocate for a paradigm shift in ventilation interfaces, underscoring that less inflation can equate to gentler yet effective care.

As neonatal care continues to evolve with advances in technology and understanding, studies like this remind us that even the seemingly simple components of care—such as mask inflation volume—can profoundly influence outcomes. It is a testament to the importance of precision, innovation, and evidence-based practice in safeguarding the most vulnerable lives. The reverberations of this study are likely to echo across NICUs worldwide, soon translating into improved protocols and, ultimately, healthier beginnings for countless newborns.

This work exemplifies how blending engineering principles with clinical insight yields practical solutions to age-old challenges. By challenging assumptions and quantifying physical forces in clinical settings, the researchers illuminate pathways to enhanced care delivery and patient safety. The neonatal landscape is poised to benefit immensely from these meticulous endeavors that bring science from theory to the bedside.

As neonatal ventilation protocols are reassessed in light of these findings, one can anticipate a surge in device innovation and clinical training adaptation tailored to optimize mask inflation and force application. This could represent a paradigm shift whereby routine neonatal resuscitation will incorporate technology-enabled feedback to guide mask pressures in real time, reducing human variability and improving consistency.

Ultimately, this study not only advances neonatal respiratory care but also elegantly demonstrates the power of detailed biomechanical analysis in resolving pressing clinical conundrums. In the quest to protect newborns’ fragile lives, every gram of force matters—and now, we are closer to applying it with surgical precision.

Subject of Research: Positive pressure ventilation in neonatal care, comparing applied forces and effectiveness between partially and fully inflated face masks during ventilation on a newborn manikin.

Article Title: Applied forces with partially vs. fully inflated face masks during neonatal ventilation: a randomized crossover manikin trial.

Article References:
Cavallin, F., Zamunaro, A., Maglio, S. et al. Applied forces with partially vs. fully inflated face masks during neonatal ventilation: a randomized crossover manikin trial. Pediatr Res (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-025-04308-2

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-025-04308-2

The work of breathing, in clinical parlance, encapsulates the effort an infant must exert to inhale and exhale – a critical metric since excessive work can exacerbate stress on delicate neonatal lung tissue. The study meticulously evaluated how each device’s internal mechanisms contribute additional resistance or ease to the spontaneous breathing process, effectively quantifying the “imposed” work of breathing. This focus on imposed WOB underscores an often overlooked yet vital factor: not all CPAP devices provide the same aerodynamic or mechanical assistance, despite delivering similar levels of positive airway pressure.

To undertake this comprehensive analysis, Sterzik and colleagues selected sixteen neonatal CPAP devices encompassing an array of operational principles—ranging from bubble CPAP systems, which create pressure by bubbling expiratory gases through water columns, to variable flow devices relying on gas flow modulation and mechanical valves. The experimental design was rigorous, employing sophisticated mechanical lung simulators configured to replicate neonatal respiratory patterns with precision. By standardizing these parameters, the study ensured that variations in WOB could be confidently attributed to device characteristics rather than patient variability.

A critical insight unveiled by the research was that devices utilizing bubble CPAP technology tended to impose lower additional work on neonatal breathing compared to certain variable flow and mechanical valve systems. This outcome challenges prevailing assumptions about device efficacy and safety, suggesting that the tactile nature of bubble-induced pressure fluctuations might align more harmoniously with the natural respiratory mechanics of neonates. Contrastingly, devices incorporating restrictive mechanical valves or turbulent airflow pathways revealed higher imposed WOB, potentially escalating the risk of respiratory fatigue in vulnerable infants.

The implications of these findings extend beyond device selection—clinicians and respiratory therapists might need to recalibrate their approach to respiratory support, tailoring CPAP choice to the individual neonate’s respiratory strength and pathology. Given the sensitivity of preterm and critically ill newborns, minimizing imposed WOB could translate into fewer complications, shortened ventilation times, and improved overall outcomes. This precision medicine approach in neonatal respiratory care could pivot on insights from studies such as this, which dissect mechanical nuances that arguably dictate bedside efficacy.

From a technical standpoint, the study employed measurements of pressure drops across devices, flow resistance, and delivered tidal volume, integrating these parameters into detailed calculations of inspiratory and expiratory work. The researchers accounted for dynamic factors such as variable respiratory rates and tidal volumes representative of the neonatal population. Additionally, the investigation highlighted the significance of device dead space—the volume of gas remaining in the device that does not participate in gas exchange—which can inadvertently increase the effort required to breathe by neonates. Reduced dead space appeared interconnected with lower imposed WOB.

Another compelling dimension was the exploration of how the interface connecting the CPAP device to the infant—nasal prongs, masks, or other delivery interfaces—influences breathing effort. While this particular study primarily focused on device mechanics, it acknowledged that the interface design’s contribution to resistance and air leakage can compound the overall work of breathing. Future design improvements integrating low-resistance interfaces may further enhance the synergy between CPAP devices and neonatal respiratory physiology.

The authors also addressed inherent trade-offs in CPAP device engineering. For instance, bubble CPAP devices incite oscillatory pressure phenomena, which might benefit alveolar recruitment and gas exchange but potentially introduce stability concerns under certain conditions. Devices striving for stable, smooth pressure delivery sometimes do so at the expense of increased flow resistance. Balancing these competing priorities represents a nuanced engineering challenge—one now illuminated by this study’s comprehensive comparative data.

Critically, the study’s methodology included replicating multiple respiratory scenarios to simulate variable clinical conditions, thereby ensuring robust generalizability. These multiple settings allowed for the evaluation of device performance under differing flows and pressures, reflecting real-world neonatal respiratory demands. Such breadth of testing conditions strengthens the case for integrating this work into clinical guidelines and device regulatory assessments.

Sterzik et al. also touched upon economic and accessibility considerations inherent to CPAP technologies. Bubble CPAP devices, often lauded for simplicity and cost-effectiveness, might additionally confer clinical advantages through lower imposed work of breathing. Such dual benefits support their preferential use in both resource-rich and resource-limited settings, underscoring global health implications. In contrast, more complex mechanical valve devices, while technologically sophisticated, demand careful scrutiny regarding their clinical cost-benefit profile.

From a translational perspective, this research encourages manufacturers to revisit CPAP device design fundamentals, emphasizing low-resistance airflow pathways and minimizing imposed work to optimize neonatal respiratory support. Innovations could stem from computational fluid dynamics modeling, novel materials reducing interface resistance, or adaptive systems responding dynamically to infant respiratory patterns. The study thus catalyzes a future where neonatal CPAP systems are not only functional but also custom-tailored to mitigate respiratory effort comprehensively.

Furthermore, clinical education might be infused with these insights, as understanding the mechanical contributions to neonatal WOB empowers caregivers to advocate for device choices grounded in physiological benefit rather than solely tradition or supplier preference. Hospitals and neonatal intensive care units could integrate this knowledge into protocols, ensuring that selection criteria encompass imposed WOB metrics alongside established safety and efficacy parameters.

The research also opens new avenues for comparative analysis across populations, exploring whether specific CPAP device mechanisms yield differential outcomes in subgroups such as extremely preterm infants, those with underlying pulmonary pathologies, or post-surgical respiratory support scenarios. A layered, mechanism-based approach to respiratory aid could revolutionize neonatal care paradigms.

While comprehensive, the study acknowledges limitations inherent in in vitro simulation versus direct clinical measurement, advocating for subsequent clinical trials evaluating imposed WOB in real patients. Nevertheless, the rigorous engineering and physiological modeling applied provides a critical foundation upon which future clinical evidence can be built, fostering a bridge between bench science and bedside care.

In conclusion, the pioneering work of Sterzik and collaborators offers a paradigm-shifting reassessment of neonatal CPAP devices, emphasizing that the mechanism of pressure generation significantly influences the infant’s breathing effort. This study not only broadens our mechanistic understanding but also ignites a call for device innovation, clinical guideline refinement, and ultimately, improved neonatal respiratory outcomes. As neonatal care continually strives to minimize iatrogenic harm while maximizing support, such science-driven introspection plays an indispensable role in shaping the future of lifesaving respiratory technologies.

Subject of Research: Imposed work of breathing in neonatal CPAP devices using different CPAP generation mechanisms.

Article Title: Imposed work of breathing of 16 neonatal CPAP-devices using different mechanisms of CPAP generation.

Article References:
Sterzik, H., Arand, J., Schwarz, C.E. et al. Imposed work of breathing of 16 neonatal CPAP-devices using different mechanisms of CPAP generation. Pediatr Res (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-025-04265-w

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-025-04265-w