The scale of the computational challenge is staggering. Temperature contrasts in astrophysical multiphase systems span roughly ten orders of magnitude, and the cold gas, while dense, can be scattered in tiny structures across enormous volumes. Observations suggest cold clouds in the circumgalactic medium may be as small as tens of parsecs. To fully resolve such structures across a Milky Way-sized halo would require more than a quadrillion resolution elements, a number so vast that no supercomputer on Earth comes close. As a result, cold gas quantities in typical cosmological simulations remain unconverged, and researchers have had to resort to a hierarchy of idealized experiments, from turbulent mixing layers to cloud-crushing simulations, each isolating one piece of the physics.

One of the central results the review highlights concerns the survival of cold clouds blasted by hot winds, the classic ‘cloud crushing’ problem. In the absence of cooling, a cold cloud embedded in a supersonic wind is shredded by Kelvin-Helmholtz and Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities on a characteristic crushing time. Worse, the drag time needed to accelerate the cloud is far longer than the destruction time, giving rise to the long-standing ‘entrainment problem’: how can cold gas be flung to hundreds or even thousands of kilometers per second in galactic winds if it should be destroyed before it can accelerate? The answer, it turns out, lies in radiative cooling. When mixed gas at the interface cools faster than the cloud is disrupted, hot gas condenses onto the cold phase, allowing clouds not only to survive but to grow in mass as they are carried along.

This insight has been crystallized into a simple survival criterion: clouds endure if the cooling time of the mixed gas is shorter than their destruction time, which can be recast as a minimum cloud size of roughly a few parsecs under typical wind conditions. Simulations show that surviving clouds grow continuously through cooling-driven mass transfer in their turbulent wakes, and that this same mixing efficiently transfers momentum, accelerating even dense molecular clouds entrained in galactic outflows. Magnetic fields, once heralded as a potential savior of the entrainment problem, help but are not sufficient on their own for the high density contrasts typical of real astrophysical clouds; combined with cooling, however, they shift the survival threshold by orders of magnitude.

The review also delves into thermal instability, the classic mechanism by which a hot medium can spontaneously fragment into a cold, clumpy phase. When radiative cooling increases as temperature drops, small density perturbations run away into dense clumps. In stratified halo atmospheres, precipitation occurs when the ratio of cooling time to free-fall time falls below a critical value of order ten, a criterion modified by turbulence, halo rotation, magnetic fields and cosmic rays. A related and still contentious question is whether cooling clouds ‘shatter’ into a characteristic scale of tiny fragments or instead undergo a violent pulsation dubbed ‘splattering’ before fragmenting, with recent three-dimensional simulations tending to favor the latter picture.

Scaling up, the review surveys supernova-driven bubbles, stratified ‘tall box’ simulations of galaxy disks, and fully global models of dwarf and Milky Way-mass galaxies. A consistent picture emerges: most outflowing mass travels in the warm phase at around 10,000 Kelvin, while most of the energy is carried by the hot, million-degree gas. Hot gas mass loading factors hover near 0.1 across a wide range of star formation rates, and warm outflows in massive galaxies tend to fall back as fountain flows rather than escaping. Including cosmic rays transforms these results, converting fountains into steady, cooler, denser winds that can double the outflowing mass and substantially reshape the circumgalactic medium.

At the largest scales, the review examines how simulations handle the circumgalactic and intracluster media. In cluster cores, jets from supermassive black holes stir turbulence that triggers local thermal instability, producing ‘chaotic cold accretion’ in which cold filaments rain onto the central galaxy and feed the black hole in a self-regulating cycle. In cosmological zoom-in simulations, a recent revolution has come from ‘super-Lagrangian’ refinement schemes that boost resolution specifically in the halo, reaching below 100 parsecs in the circumgalactic medium. These enhanced-resolution models consistently show more and smaller cool clouds, higher covering fractions of cool gas, and non-converged cloud mass functions, confirming that cold gas structure in halo simulations is far from fully resolved.

What emerges most clearly from this comprehensive synthesis is that the diverse simulation approaches, from idealized mixing layers to full cosmological models, are not competitors but complementary layers of a single framework. Small-scale experiments provide the physical intuition, survival criteria and subgrid prescriptions that large-scale simulations need; large-scale simulations in turn supply the realistic boundary conditions, pressures and turbulence levels under which the small-scale physics operates. The ultimate arbiter, the authors stress, is observation, and connecting simulations to real spectra, emission maps and absorption measurements through radiative transfer remains one of the field’s most demanding tasks.

The challenges ahead are formidable: achieving numerical convergence in multiphase diagnostics, capturing the interplay of magnetic fields, conduction, viscosity and cosmic rays, and resolving the critical scales that govern whether cold gas survives, grows or shatters. But the trajectory is clear. GPU-accelerated codes, adaptive refinement targeted at cooling lengths, and a maturing theoretical framework are converging on a unified picture of the multiphase Universe, one simulation at a time.

Subject of Research: Numerical simulations of multiphase gas dynamics in the interstellar, circumgalactic and intracluster media

Article Title: Simulations of multi-phase gas in and around galaxies

Article References: Gronke, M., & Schneider, E. E. (2026). Simulations of multi-phase gas in and around galaxies. Living Reviews in Computational Astrophysics, 12(1), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41115-026-00025-7

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1007/s41115-026-00025-7

Keywords: multiphase gas, galaxy simulations, circumgalactic medium, thermal instability, galactic winds, cloud crushing, turbulent mixing layers, computational astrophysics, radiative cooling, cosmic rays, supernova feedback, Kelvin-Helmholtz instability