The researchers collected pollen using traps fitted to hygienic beehives across Morocco’s Rabat-Salé-Kénitra, Fès-Meknès, and Tanger-Tétouan-Al Hoceïma regions between March and May 2023. Each sample was immediately frozen at minus 20 degrees Celsius to preserve its biochemical integrity. Back in the laboratory, the team used melissopalynology, the microscopic analysis of pollen grains, to determine the botanical origin of each sample, supplemented by scanning electron microscopy to visualize the intricate surface structures of the pollen grains themselves.

The palynological analysis revealed that every single sample was polyfloral, meaning the bees had foraged from multiple plant species rather than a single dominant flower. Eight plant families were identified across the collection, with the mustard family, Brassicaceae, appearing in seven of the eight samples, making it the most widespread floral resource in the study area. One sample from Sidi Slimane was the most botanically restricted, composed exclusively of Myrtaceae at 51 percent and Brassicaceae at 49 percent, while samples from Ouazzane and Douar Lafdoul showed the greatest botanical richness, containing four and five families respectively. This floral diversity proved to be far more than an ecological curiosity; it was the key variable underlying nearly every chemical difference the team later measured.

Physicochemical testing showed considerable variation across the samples. Moisture content ranged from just over 3 percent to nearly 27.5 percent, with most samples falling within the 10 to 30 percent range considered typical of fresh bee pollen. Water activity, a measure of the water available to spoilage microorganisms, remained between 0.31 and 0.42, safely below the 0.61 threshold at which yeasts and molds typically begin to proliferate. pH values clustered tightly around 5.0, and ash content, an indicator of total mineral load, ranged from 0.92 to 4.64 percent, all comfortably within the 6 percent maximum permitted by Brazilian and Argentinian regulations.

The mineral analysis, performed using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, identified ten elements and confirmed potassium and calcium as the dominant macrominerals. Potassium concentrations spanned from 742 to 2,117 milligrams per kilogram, while calcium ranged from 677 to 2,197 milligrams per kilogram, with statistically significant variation between samples pointing to the influence of local soil and flora. Trace elements including iron, zinc, sodium, and selenium were also quantified. Critically, the team screened for heavy metal contamination and found that lead and cadmium, where detected at all, remained well below Codex and European Union safety limits. For a typical daily intake of 10 grams, estimated exposure to these metals would fall far beneath the tolerable thresholds established by the European Food Safety Authority, though the authors note that continued monitoring is advisable, particularly for children.

Nutritionally, the pollen proved to be a dense source of macronutrients. Total protein content ranged from 14.55 to 19.56 grams per 100 grams of dry weight, soluble carbohydrates from 17.2 to 28.87 grams per 100 grams, and lipids from 1.92 to 3.03 grams per 100 grams. Energy values ranged from roughly 157 to 205 kilocalories per 100 grams of dry weight. These figures align with the international literature on bee pollen, which typically reports protein contents between 10 and 40 grams per 100 grams, and they reinforce the product’s reputation as a protein-rich supplement comparable to legumes and certain oilseeds.

The bioactive profile was where the regional differences became most striking. Total phenolic content, measured by the Folin-Ciocalteu method and expressed as gallic acid equivalents, varied more than fourfold, from 4.19 to 17.39 milligrams per gram of dry weight. Flavonoid content ranged from 0.94 to 3.18 milligrams of quercetin equivalents per gram. High-performance liquid chromatography identified a diverse array of phenolic compounds across the samples, including gallic acid, naringin, rutin, vanillic acid, and p-coumaric acid. The sample from Ouazzane was the richest, yielding twenty distinct compounds, while the sample from Sidi Slimane contained only four. Intriguingly, the presence of naringin in samples containing citrus forage and rutin in samples rich in Brassicaceae and Papaveraceae species suggests that specific phenolic compounds could serve as chemical fingerprints for tracing the botanical origin of commercial pollen, a possibility the authors flag for targeted future investigation.

Antioxidant activity, assessed through three complementary assays, confirmed that the pollen extracts were potent radical scavengers. In the DPPH assay, the most active sample achieved 50 percent radical inhibition at a concentration of just 0.28 milligrams per milliliter, while ABTS values were even lower, indicating strong antiradical capacity. Ferric reducing power ranged from 87 to 147 micromoles of iron(II) equivalents per gram. One unexpected finding emerged from the correlation analysis: total phenolic content showed negative correlations with DPPH and ABTS activity, contradicting the usual assumption that more phenolics automatically mean more antioxidant power. The authors suggest this paradox may reflect the specific identity of the phenolic compounds present, the contribution of non-phenolic antioxidants such as vitamins and peptides, or antagonistic interactions within the complex pollen matrix.

Perhaps the most medically compelling results came from the enzyme inhibition assays. Because the digestive enzymes alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase break down dietary starch and sugars into glucose, inhibiting them can blunt the post-meal blood sugar spikes that drive type 2 diabetes complications. The pollen extracts inhibited both enzymes in a dose-dependent manner, with alpha-amylase IC50 values ranging from 263 to 954 micrograms per milliliter and alpha-glucosidase IC50 values from 145 to 670 micrograms per milliliter. Two samples stood out: the Sidi Slimane pollen, which was also the richest in phenolics and flavonoids, was the strongest alpha-amylase inhibitor, while the Boufekrane sample was the most potent against alpha-glucosidase. Although the synthetic drug acarbose remains far more powerful, the findings support the idea that flavonoids such as quercetin and luteolin, which can bind directly to the active sites of these enzymes, contribute meaningfully to the antihyperglycemic potential of pollen.

The study’s authors are careful to acknowledge its limitations. With only eight samples collected in a single spring season, the work provides an initial characterization rather than a definitive geographical or botanical profile, and the team calls for multi-season surveys, standardized color classification alongside palynological analysis, and advanced metabolomic profiling using HPLC-MS/MS to fully map the structure-activity relationships at play. In vivo and clinical trials will also be needed to confirm that the laboratory-measured bioactivities translate into real health benefits. Even so, the research establishes a valuable compositional baseline for Moroccan bee pollen and strengthens the case for this ancient food as a modern functional ingredient. As consumer demand for natural, health-promoting foods continues to grow, the humble pollen pellet, shaped by the flowers, soils, and climate of its origin, may prove to be one of the most chemically rich ingredients in the functional food arsenal.

Subject of Research: Nutritional, phytochemical, and functional characterization of bee pollen from eight regions of Morocco

Article Title: Multi‐Regional Characterization of Moroccan Bee Pollen: Nutritional, Bioactive, and Functional Properties

Article References: Diai, F., Bouddine, T., Kachmar, M. R., Kaddouri, M., Kassimi, C. E., Guirrou, I., Laaroussi, H., Al‐zharani, M., Nasr, F. A., Qurtam, A. A., Hajji, L., & Chakir, S. (2026). Multi‐Regional Characterization of Moroccan Bee Pollen: Nutritional, Bioactive, and Functional Properties. Food Science & Nutrition, 14(10), Article e72174. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.72174

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.72174

Keywords: bee pollen, Morocco, phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, alpha-amylase inhibition, alpha-glucosidase inhibition, melissopalynology, mineral composition, functional food, type 2 diabetes, flavonoids, food science

The research, conducted by Francis Gbefo and Phanuel Yao Klogo at the University of Ghana, is notable for its unusually rigorous design. Rather than comparing rice varieties grown on different farms under different conditions, the team grew all four genotypes side by side in the same field at the Soil and Irrigation Research Center in Kpong, receiving identical fertilizer and water. This head-to-head setup matters enormously in nutritional studies, because soil chemistry, rainfall, and postharvest handling can each shift a grain’s mineral content dramatically. By holding the environment constant, the researchers could isolate differences attributable to the plants themselves, or at least to the combination of genetics and processing.

The four contenders represented two distinct strands of Ghanaian rice agriculture. CRI-Amankwatia and CRI-Dartey are improved aromatic varieties released by the Crops Research Institute in Fumesua, Kumasi, products of a national breeding effort aimed at competing with imported rice on quality and aroma. Ex-Baika, an aromatic landrace, and Ex-Viono, a brown rice, are traditional varieties maintained by farmers in the Coastal Savannah, widely cultivated but nutritionally under-characterized in the scientific literature. The experiment used a randomized complete block design with three field replicates per genotype, plots measuring four by three meters, and a standardized fertilization regime of 90 kilograms of nitrogen per hectare split between transplanting and panicle initiation, alongside uniform phosphorus and potassium applications.

At harvest, the grains were dried to a narrow moisture window of roughly 11.5 to 12.5 percent before milling, ensuring that every sample entered analysis under comparable conditions. Each field replicate was milled separately with a Satake rice mill, and milling recoveries ranged from 70 percent for CRI-Amankwatia down to 65 percent for Ex-Viono. Here the study made a deliberate and consequential choice: while Ex-Baika was milled to polished white rice like the improved varieties, Ex-Viono was processed as brown rice, its bran layer retained in keeping with its traditional form. That decision would prove central to interpreting the results, because rice minerals are concentrated precisely in those outer layers that polishing removes.

The laboratory work followed standardized Association of Official Analytical Chemists methods. Proximate composition, meaning moisture, crude fat, crude fiber, ash, crude protein, and carbohydrate, was determined gravimetrically and by Kjeldahl digestion, with protein calculated using the conventional nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of 6.25. Minerals were quantified by atomic absorption spectrophotometry after acid digestion, with calibration curves showing coefficients of determination of at least 0.999. Every measurement was performed in technical triplicate on each of three biological replicates, and the data passed formal tests of normality and variance homogeneity before analysis of variance. The authors candidly note one limitation: certified reference materials and recovery studies were not available, so independent verification of the mineral measurements was not possible.

The proximate results revealed a grain dominated by carbohydrate, as expected, but with meaningful genotype-specific differences. Protein ranged from 7.41 percent in CRI-Dartey to 8.37 percent in Ex-Viono, a spread that places the Ghanaian varieties at or above levels reported for newly released rice in Ethiopia and Benin. Crude fiber varied from 0.61 to 0.78 percent, again peaking in Ex-Viono, while fat spanned 0.63 to 0.71 percent and ash, the total mineral residue after incineration at 600 degrees Celsius, climbed from 0.43 percent in CRI-Amankwatia to 0.74 percent in Ex-Viono. The researchers are careful to stress that these compositional differences describe the grain’s chemistry; the study did not measure fiber functionality, glycemic response, or any physiological effect, so no health claims can be drawn directly from the numbers.

The mineral data told the more striking story. Potassium was the most abundant element in every genotype, ranging from 112.27 milligrams per 100 grams in CRI-Dartey to 125.16 in Ex-Viono, followed by magnesium at 37.38 to 41.22 milligrams per 100 grams. Calcium and sodium were lower but still significantly different among genotypes, with Ex-Viono recording 4.51 and 13.08 milligrams per 100 grams respectively. Among the micronutrients, manganese was the lone exception to the pattern, statistically indistinguishable across all four varieties at roughly 2.3 to 2.4 milligrams per 100 grams. Iron and zinc, however, differed sharply: Ex-Viono delivered 2.77 milligrams of iron and 2.16 milligrams of zinc per 100 grams, roughly double the iron and nearly double the zinc found in the two improved varieties, with Ex-Baika occupying an intermediate position. Given that iron and zinc deficiencies affect hundreds of millions of people across sub-Saharan Africa, a staple grain that accumulates twice the micronutrient load is not a trivial finding.

Yet the authors urge caution in attributing Ex-Viono’s mineral advantage to genetics alone. Because Ex-Viono was analyzed as brown rice while the other three genotypes were polished, the mineral-rich bran and germ tissues remained in the sample, and decades of research show that elements such as iron, zinc, and magnesium are unevenly distributed within the grain, concentrated in the outer layers that milling strips away. The study therefore cannot disentangle the effect of processing from the effect of genotype, a confound the researchers acknowledge explicitly. Environmental factors, including soil pH, nutrient availability, and redox conditions in the calcic vertisol at Kpong, further complicate any purely genetic interpretation. What the data do establish is a valuable baseline: under identical field conditions and documented processing, these landraces accumulate substantially more of several essential minerals than the improved cultivars currently promoted for their agronomic and aromatic qualities.

The broader context gives the findings their urgency. Ghanaian consumers have long preferred imported rice, citing perceived superiority in appearance, cleanliness, and cooking quality, and market dominance by foreign brands reinforces that preference. National programs, from the National Rice Development Strategy to Planting for Food and Jobs, along with partners such as the Japan International Cooperation Agency and the Coalition for African Rice Development, have pushed to expand domestic production and improve grain quality. Demont and Ndour, whose work on African rice value chains the authors cite, have argued that upgrading the quality of domestic genotypes is essential for market competitiveness. Nutritional characterization of the kind performed here supplies a missing piece of that puzzle, identifying genetic resources that breeders could draw upon to combine high yield and consumer appeal with superior mineral density.

The study’s authors frame their landraces as candidates for future breeding programs, and the genetic literature supports that optimism: genome-wide association studies have identified loci governing mineral accumulation in rice grain, and comparative work across Asia and Africa has repeatedly documented meaningful diversity between landraces and hybrid varieties. The researchers themselves flag the next steps. Their results come from a single site and one season’s conditions, so multi-location trials with greater replication are needed to account for genotype-by-environment interactions before breeding decisions are made. They also recommend integrating nutritional quality with agronomic traits such as yield, disease resistance, adaptability, and consumer preference, since a nutritionally superior variety that farmers will not grow or consumers will not buy helps no one. For now, the message is clear and quietly provocative: the old varieties Ghana’s farmers never abandoned may hold exactly the nutritional assets the country’s rice sector needs to compete, provided science and market strategy can bring them together.

Subject of Research: Comparative nutritional and mineral profiling of rice landraces and improved genotypes grown in Ghana

Article Title: Comparative nutritional profiling of selected rice landraces and improved genotypes grown in Ghana

Article References: Gbefo, F., & Klogo, P. Y. (2026). Comparative nutritional profiling of selected rice landraces and improved genotypes grown in Ghana. Heliyon, 12(15), Article e45552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2026.e45552

Image Credits: AI Generated

DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2026.e45552

Keywords: rice, landraces, Ghana, mineral composition, iron, zinc, proximate analysis, food security, crop breeding, nutrition, agriculture, Heliyon